Diagnostic, monitoring, and predictive tool for subjects with complex valvular, vascular and ventricular diseases

ABSTRACT

Described are non-invasive methods and associated embodiments for determining an indicator of hemodynamic function using a lumped parameter model of cardiovascular function. The model uses data obtained using a non-invasive cardiovascular imaging modality such as Doppler echocardiography as well as blood pressure data. Various embodiments allow for the diagnosis, monitoring or prognosis of cardiovascular disease including complex valvular, vascular and ventricular diseases (C3VI) as well as prospectively assessing the effect of interventions on cardiovascular function and heart workload.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 63/018,675 filed May 1, 2020, the entire contents ofwhich are hereby incorporated by reference.

FIELD

The described embodiments relate to cardiovascular disease includingcomplex valvular, vascular and ventricular disease, and morespecifically to the use of a lumped parameter model in determining anindicator of hemodynamic function.

BACKGROUND

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death globally, takingmore lives than all forms of cancer combined and is the leading cause ofburden on healthcare around the world as well. It is expected to remainthe first cause of death by 2030 in the worlds. Complexvalvular-vascular-ventricular interactions (C3VI) is the most generaland fundamentally challenging condition in which multiple valvular,vascular and ventricular pathologies have mechanical interactions withone another wherein physical phenomena associated with each pathologyamplify effects of others on the cardiovascular system²⁻⁷. Examples ofcomponents of C3VI include: valvular disease (e.g., aortic valvestenosis, mitral valve stenosis, aortic valve regurgitation and mitralvalve insufficiency), ventricular disease (e.g., left ventricledysfunction and heart failure), vascular disease (e.g., hypertension),paravalvular leaks, and LV outflow tract obstruction in patients withimplanted cardiovascular devices such as transcatheter valve replacement(TVR), changes due to surgical procedures for C3VI (e.g., valvereplacement and left ventricular reconstructive surgery) andetc.^(2,4-7).

“Cardiology is flow”⁸. The main functions of the cardiovascular systemare to transport, control and maintain blood flow in the entire body.Abnormal hemodynamics greatly alter this tranquil picture, leading toinitiation and progression of disease⁹. These abnormalities are oftenmanifested by disturbed fluid dynamics¹⁰ (local hemodynamics), and inmany cases by an increase in the heart workload (global hemodynamics).Hemodynamics quantification can be greatly useful for accurate and earlydiagnosis but we still lack proper diagnostic methods for manycardiovascular diseases¹¹⁻¹³ because the hemodynamics analysis methodsthat can be used as engines of new diagnostic tools are not welldeveloped. Furthermore, as most interventions intend to recover thehealthy condition, the ability to monitor and predict hemodynamicsfollowing particular interventions can have significant impacts onsaving lives. Despite remarkable advances in medical imaging, imaging onits own is not predictive¹¹⁻¹⁴. Predictive methods are rare. They areextensions of diagnostic methods, enabling prediction of effects ofinterventions, allowing timely and personalized interventions, andhelping critical clinical decision making about life-threatening risksbased on quantitative data.

The heart resides in a sophisticated vascular network whose loads imposeboundary conditions on the heart function^(2,14-16). Effective diagnosisand prediction hinge on quantifications of the global hemodynamics(heart workload) and of the local hemodynamics (detailed information ofthe dynamics of the circulatory system, e.g., flow and pressure) of thecardiovascular system as all are very important for long-term health ofthe heart^(2,14,16). However, there is no method to invasively ornoninvasively quantify the heart workload (global hemodynamics) and toprovide contribution breakdown of each component of the cardiovasculardiseases. Moreover, current diagnostic methods are limited and cannotquantify detailed information of the flow dynamics of the circulatorysystem (local hemodynamics). Although all of these can provide valuableinformation about the patient's state of cardiac deterioration and heartrecovery currently, clinical decisions are chiefly made based on theanatomy alone with some exceptions. To augment anatomical information,cardiac catheterization is used as the clinical gold standard toevaluate pressure and flow through heart and circulatory system but itis invasive, expensive, high risk and therefore not practical fordiagnosis in routine daily clinical practice or serial follow-upexaminations¹⁷. Most importantly, cardiac catheterization only providesaccess to the blood pressure in very limited regions rather than detailsof the physiological pulsatile flow and pressures throughout the heartand the circulatory system. Phase-contrast magnetic resonance imagingcan provide flow but it has poor temporal resolution, is costly, lengthyand not possible for many patients with implanted devices^(18,19).Doppler echocardiography (DE) is potentially the most versatile tool forhemodynamics as it is low-cost and risk-free and has a high temporalresolution. Despite all the potential of DE and the progress that hasbeen made in its clinical use, to date, there have been no DE methods tocomprehensively evaluate local hemodynamics, to evaluate globalhemodynamics or to breakdown contributions of each components of thecardiovascular diseases. Computational mechanics has the potential tosupplement DE to fill this gap and can offer a powerful means to augmentclinical measurements to create non-invasive patient-specific diagnosticand predictive methods for monitoring, treatment planning and riskassessment.

SUMMARY

In one aspect there is provided a non-invasive image-basedpatient-specific diagnostic, monitoring and predictivecomputational-mechanics framework (CMF) suitable for determining anindicator of hemodynamic function for a subject. The indicator ofhemodynamic function indicative of complex valvular, vascular andventricular (C3VI) disease. For simplicity, this framework and theassociated embodiments for determining an indicator of hemodynamicfunction in a subject is optionally referred to herein as C3VI-CMF. Insome embodiments, embodiments described herein are useful for (1)quantifying details of the physiological pulsatile flow and pressuresthrough the heart and circulatory system (local hemodynamics); and (2)quantifying heart function metrics in terms of the heart workload(global hemodynamics). C3VI-CMF also provides the breakdown of effectsof each disease constituents on the global function of thecardiovascular system. C3VI-CMF can also quantify other heart-functionmetrics such as the left-ventricular end-diastolic pressure andinstantaneous left-ventricular pressure. In one embodiment, C3VI-CMFuses input parameters obtained using a non-invasive cardiovascularimaging modality and input parameters indicative of blood pressure. Forexample, in one embodiment the input parameters are determined usingDoppler Echocardiography (DE) and a sphygmomanometer. In one embodiment,the C3VI-CMF comprises a lumped-parameter model at its core and includesseveral sub-models allowing analysis of hemodynamic function includingany combination of complex valvular, vascular and ventricular diseasesin both pre and post intervention conditions.

As set out in Example 1 the use of C3VI-CMF was validated againstcatheterization data in forty-nine patients with C3VI and wasdemonstrated to correlate well with catheter measurements. For example,using the C3VI-CMF model maximum relative errors of only 4.49% and 4.33%compared to catheterization data were observed for aorta and LVpressures across all forty-nine subjects. Remarkably, whilecatheterization data can provide data on flow and pressure in specificregions, the systems and methods described herein are also useful forproviding details on physiological pulsatile flow and pressurethroughout the heart and cardiovascular system. Furthermore, C3VI-CMF isuseful for determining indicators of both specific components ofhemodynamic function (such as for C3VI disease constituents) as well asglobal heart workload. This allows for the non-invasive modelling ofdifferent interventions for the treatment of C3VI including prioritizingspecific interventions based on reducing heart workload. For example, inone embodiment the lumped parameter model determines the indicator ofhemodynamic function, and the indicator of hemodynamic function is aprediction of an intervention effect, the prediction of an interventioneffect determined based on a determined heart workload (globalhemodynamics) and the breakdown of the effects of disease constituentson the global function as well as detailed information of the fluiddynamics of the circulatory system (local hemodynamics).

As shown in FIG. 8 the embodiments described herein may include one ormore patient-specific optimization steps following an initial lumpedparameter model (LPM) simulation. For example, Doppler echocardiographycan reliably measure left ventricular outflow tract stroke volume(LVOT-SV) which can be used to optimize the parameter Q_(MPV),indicative of the mean flow rate of the pulmonary valve. Alternativelyor in addition, parameters (R_(SA), C_(SAC) and C_(ao)) may be optimizedby comparing calculated and measured systolic and diastolic bloodpressures. In one embodiment, patient-specific optimization steps areused to (1) calculate the mean flow rate of the pulmonary valve(Q_(MPV)) by minimizing the error between the Forward LVOT-SV calculatedby the lumped-parameter model and the one measured in each patient usingDoppler echocardiography; and (2) adjust the maximum and minimum of theaorta pressures to be equal to or approximate the systolic pressure anddiastolic pressure measured using a sphygmomanometer in each patient.

In one aspect, one or more embodiments of the invention provide anon-invasive method for determining an indicator of hemodynamic functionfor a subject. In one embodiment the method comprises: providing alumped parameter model, the lumped parameter model comprising aplurality of sub-models, the plurality of sub-models defined by a set oftime-varying functions comprising at least one sub-model parameter;receiving a plurality of input parameters for the subject, the inputparameters comprising at least one input parameter obtained using anon-invasive cardiovascular imaging modality and at least one inputparameter indicative of blood pressure; determining the at least onesub-model parameter in the plurality of sub-models for the subject basedon the lumped parameter model and the plurality of input parameters; andoptionally determining the indicator of hemodynamic function for thesubject based on at least one sub-model parameter for the subject.

In another aspect, one or more embodiments of the invention provide asystem for determining an indicator of hemodynamic function for asubject. In one embodiment, the system comprises: a memory, the memorycomprising: a lumped parameter model, the lumped parameter modelcomprising a plurality of sub-models comprising at least one sub-modelparameter, the plurality of sub-models defined by a set of time-varyingfunctions of comprising the at least one sub-model parameter; aprocessor in communication with the memory, the processor configured to:receive a plurality of input parameters for the subject, the inputparameters comprising at least one input parameter obtained using anon-invasive cardiovascular imaging modality and at least one inputparameter indicative of blood pressure; determine the at least onesub-model parameter in the plurality of sub-models for the subject basedon the lumped parameter model and the plurality of input parameters; andoptionally determine the indicator of hemodynamic function for thesubject based on at least one sub-model parameter for the subject.

In another aspect, one or more embodiments of the invention provide anon-transitory computer readable medium comprising computer-executableinstructions for determining an indicator of hemodynamic function for asubject. In one embodiment, the computer-executable instructions whenexecuted cause a processor to determine the indicator of hemodynamicfunction based on a lumped parameter model and a plurality of inputparameters for the subject, the lumped parameter model comprising aplurality of sub-models, the plurality of sub-models defined by a set oftime-varying functions comprising at least one sub-model parameter, andthe plurality of input parameters for the subject comprising at leastone input parameter obtained using a non-invasive cardiovascular imagingmodality and at least one input parameter indicative of blood pressure.In one embodiment, the computer-executable instructions when executedcause the processor to determine at least one sub-model parameter in theplurality of sub-models for the subject and determine the indicator ofhemodynamic function for the subject based on the at least one sub-modelparameter for the subject.

In one or more embodiments, the input parameters obtained using thenon-invasive cardiovascular imaging modality may comprise one or morecardiovascular anatomical or functional measurements, optionallyobtained using Doppler echocardiography. For example, in one embodiment,the input parameters comprise at least one selected from the group of aforward left ventricular outflow tract stroke volume (LVOT-SV), a heartrate, an ejection time, an ascending aorta area, a left ventricularoutflow tract area, an aortic valve effective orifice area, a mitralvalve effective orifice area, an indicator of aortic valve regurgitationseverity and an indicator of mitral valve regurgitation severity.

In one or more embodiments, the at least one input parameter indicativeof blood pressure may comprise a diastolic blood pressure and a systolicblood pressure, optionally obtained using a sphygmomanometer.

In one or more embodiments, the lumped parameter model comprises aplurality of sub-models defined by a set of time-varying functions thatmodel cardiovascular function. In one embodiment, the set of timevarying functions comprise one or more sub-model parameters. Optionally,one or more sub-model parameters in the lumped parameter model areoptimized by reference to empirically determined data for the subjectsuch as imaging data and/or blood pressure data.

For example, in one embodiment one of the sub-models is a pulmonarycirculation sub-model, optionally defined by a rectified sine curvewaveform with a duration (t_(ee)) and amplitude based on a mean flowrate of the pulmonary valve (Q_(MPV)). In one embodiment, a sub-modelparameter for the mean flow rate of the pulmonary valve (Q_(MPV)) may beoptimized based on minimizing the error between a sub-model parametervalue of LVOT-SV determined for the subject using the lumped parametermodel and a value of LVOT-SV for the subject determined using thenon-invasive cardiovascular imaging modality.

Alternatively or in addition, one of the sub-models may be a systemicsub-model, optionally wherein the systemic sub-model is defined bysub-model parameters for systemic artery resistance (R_(SA)), aortacompliance (C_(ao)) and systemic compliance (C_(SAC)).

In one embodiment, sub-model parameter values for systemic arteryresistance (R_(SA)), aorta compliance (C_(ao)) and systemic compliance(C_(SAC)) may be optimized based on minimizing the error between valuesof systolic and diastolic blood pressure determined for the subjectusing the lumped parameter model and values of systolic and diastolicblood pressure for the subject determined using a sphygmomanometer oranother suitable device for measuring blood pressure.

The embodiments described herein are useful for determining an indicatorof hemodynamic function. The indicator of hemodynamic function mayitself be a sub-model parameter or may be based on one or more sub-modelparameters.

In one embodiment, the indicator of hemodynamic function is an indicatorof global hemodynamic function. For example, the indicator of globalhemodynamic function may be an indicator selected from the group of aleft ventricle workload, a left-ventricular end-diastolic pressure, aninstantaneous left-ventricular pressure and combinations thereof.

In one embodiment, the indicator of hemodynamic function may comprise anindicator of local hemodynamic function. For example, the indicator oflocal hemodynamic function may be an indicator selected from the groupof a left ventricle pressure, an aorta pressure, an atrium pressure, anaortic valve pressure, a mitral valve pressure, a mitral flow rate, aleft ventricle flow, an aorta flow, a left ventricle volume and a leftatrial volume as well as flow, pressure and volume through thecirculatory system;

In one embodiment, the indicator of hemodynamic function may be anindicator of heart workload. For example, the indicator of heartworkload may be an integral of LV pressure and volume estimated as thearea covered by a LV pressure-volume loop.

In one or more embodiments, the method may further comprise diagnosing,monitoring or prognosing cardiovascular disease in the subject based onthe indicator of hemodynamic function, optionally based on a pluralityof indicators of hemodynamic function.

In one or more embodiments, the method may further comprise determiningthe relative contribution of one or more disease constituents tocardiovascular disease in the subject, optionally by comparing LVworkload under different conditions of the lumped parameter model byvarying values of one or more sub-model parameters.

In one or more embodiments, the method comprises determining anindicator of hemodynamic function that is a prediction of anintervention effect, such as a surgical intervention, for the subject.In one embodiment, the method comprises determining the indicator ofhemodynamic function based on one or more of an indicator of globalhemodynamic function determined for the subject, optionally heartworkload, a relative contribution of one or more one diseaseconstituents to the indicator of global hemodynamic function for thesubject and an indicator of local hemodynamic function determined forthe subject. In one embodiment, the indicator of local hemodynamicfunction provides information on the fluid dynamics of the circulatorysystem for the subject.

In one or more embodiments, the method may further comprise selecting atreatment for the subject based on the indicator of hemodynamicfunction, optionally based on a plurality of indicators of hemodynamicfunction, or based on the relative contribution of the one or more C3VIdisease constituents to cardiovascular disease in the subject.Optionally, the method further comprises treating cardiovascular diseasein subject with the selected treatment.

Other features and advantages of the present application will becomeapparent from the following detailed description. It should beunderstood, however, that the detailed description and the specificexamples, while indicating embodiments of the application, are given byway of illustration only and the scope of the claims should not belimited by these embodiments, but should be given the broadestinterpretation consistent with the description as a whole.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

One or more embodiments will now be described in detail with referenceto the drawings, in which:

FIG. 1A shows a schematic diagram of the lumped parameter modelingincluding an anatomical representation, in accordance with one or moreembodiments.

FIG. 1B shows a schematic diagram of the lumped parameter modelingincluding an electrical representation, in accordance with one or moreembodiments.

FIGS. 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D and 2E show views of the heart used for Dopplerechocardiography measurements, in accordance with one or moreembodiments.

FIGS. 3A, 3B, 3C, and 3D show Doppler echocardiography measurements forleft ventricular outflow tract and the aorta in accordance with one ormore embodiments, including FIG. 3A showing left ventricular outflowtract diameter, measured in the parasternal long axis view; FIG. 3Bshowing left ventricular outflow tract velocity time integral, taken asthe average of the areas; FIG. 3C showing ascending aorta diameter,measured in the parasternal long axis view; and FIG. 3D showing aortavelocity time integral, taken as the average of the areas.

FIGS. 4A, and 4B show Doppler echocardiography investigation for aorticvalve regurgitation, in accordance with one or more embodiments. FIG. 4Ashows a parasternal short axis view. FIG. 4B shows a parasternal longaxis view.

FIGS. 5A and 5B show Mitral valve dimensions, in accordance with one ormore embodiments. FIG. 5A shows Mitral valve diameter (d₁), measured inapical two-chamber view; FIG. 5B shows Mitral Valve diameter (d₂),measured in apical four-chamber view.

FIGS. 6A, 6B, and 6C show Doppler echocardiography investigation formitral valve regurgitation, in accordance with one or more embodiments.

FIGS. 7A, 7B, 7C, and 7D show LV volumes, in accordance with one or moreembodiments. FIGS. 7A and 7B show an end of systole LV volume in apicalfour-chamber view and apical two chamber view respectively. FIGS. 7C and7D show an end of diastole LV volume in apical four-chamber view andapical two-chamber view respectively.

FIG. 8 shows a patient-specific response optimization method, inaccordance with one or more embodiments.

FIGS. 9A(i), 9A(ii), 9B(i), 9C(i), 9C(ii) shows a pressure waveformcomparison, in accordance with one or more embodiments. FIGS. 9A(i) and9A(ii) may be for a first subject, FIGS. 9B(i) and 9B(ii) may be for asecond subject, and FIGS. 9C(i) and 9C(ii) may be for a third subject.

FIGS. 10A and 10B show peak pressure correlations, in accordance withone or more embodiments. FIG. 10A shows the peak pressure correlationdiagram for the left ventricle. FIG. 10B shows the peak pressurecorrelation diagram for the aorta.

FIGS. 11A(i), 11A(ii), 11A(iii), 11A(iv), 11B(i), 11B(ii), 11B(iii) and11B(iv) are examples of predicted hemodynamics in a C3VI patient (Samplecase #1) from baseline to 90 days post-TAVR, in accordance with one ormore embodiments.

FIGS. 12A(i), 12A(ii), 12A(iii), 12A(iv), 12B(i), 12B(ii), 12B(iii) and12B(iv) show examples of predicted hemodynamics in a C3VI patient(Sample case #2) from baseline to 90 days post-TAVR, in accordance withone or more embodiments.

FIGS. 13A(i), 13A(ii), 13A(iii), 13A(iv), 13B(i), 13B(ii), 13B(iii) and13B(iv) show examples of predicted hemodynamics in a C3VI patient(Sample case #3) from baseline to 80 days post-valvuloplasty, inaccordance with one or more embodiments.

FIGS. 14A and 14B show examples of workload breakdown analysis andprediction for effects of interventions in Patient #1, in accordancewith one or more embodiments.

FIG. 15 shows a non-invasive method for determining an indicator ofhemodynamic function for a subject in accordance with one or moreembodiments.

FIG. 16 shows a non-invasive system for determining an indicator ofhemodynamic function in accordance with one or more embodiments.

FIG. 17 shows a device for determining an indicator of hemodynamicfunction in accordance with one or more embodiments.

DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

Definitions

Unless otherwise indicated, the definitions and embodiments described inthis and other sections are intended to be applicable to all embodimentsand aspects of the present application herein described for which theyare suitable as would be understood by a person skilled in the art.

In understanding the scope of the present application, the term“comprising” and its derivatives, as used herein, are intended to beopen ended terms that specify the presence of the stated features,elements, components, groups, integers, and/or steps, but do not excludethe presence of other unstated features, elements, components, groups,integers and/or steps. The foregoing also applies to words havingsimilar meanings such as the terms, “including”, “having” and theirderivatives. The term “consisting” and its derivatives, as used herein,are intended to be closed terms that specify the presence of the statedfeatures, elements, components, groups, integers, and/or steps, butexclude the presence of other unstated features, elements, components,groups, integers and/or steps. The term “consisting essentially of”, asused herein, is intended to specify the presence of the stated features,elements, components, groups, integers, and/or steps as well as thosethat do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristic(s) offeatures, elements, components, groups, integers, and/or steps.

Terms of degree such as “substantially”, “about” and “approximately” asused herein mean a reasonable amount of deviation of the modified termsuch that the end result is not significantly changed. These terms ofdegree should be construed as including a deviation of at least ±5% ofthe modified term if this deviation would not negate the meaning of theword it modifies.

As used in this application, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the”include plural references unless the content clearly dictates otherwise.

The term “and/or” as used herein means that the listed items arepresent, or used, individually or in combination. In effect, this termmeans that “at least one of” or “one or more” of the listed items isused or present.

The embodiments of the systems and methods described herein may beimplemented in hardware or software, or a combination of both. Theseembodiments may be implemented in computer programs executing onprogrammable computers, each computer including at least one processor,a data storage system (including volatile memory or non-volatile memoryor other data storage elements or a combination thereof), and at leastone communication interface. For example and without limitation, theprogrammable computers or computing devices may be a server, networkappliance, embedded device, computer expansion module, a personalcomputer, laptop, personal data assistant, cellular telephone,smart-phone device, tablet computer, a wireless device or any othercomputing device capable of being configured to carry out the methodsdescribed herein.

In some embodiments, the communication interface may be a networkcommunication interface. In embodiments in which elements are combined,the communication interface may be a software communication interface,such as those for inter-process communication (IPC). In still otherembodiments, there may be a combination of communication interfacesimplemented as hardware, software, and a combination thereof.

Program code may be applied to input data to perform the functionsdescribed herein and to generate output information. The outputinformation is applied to one or more output devices, in known fashion.

Each program may be implemented in a high level procedural or objectoriented programming and/or scripting language, or both, to communicatewith a computer system. However, the programs may be implemented inassembly or machine language, if desired. In any case, the language maybe a compiled or interpreted language. Each such computer program may bestored on a storage media or a device (e.g. ROM, magnetic disk, opticaldisc) readable by a general or special purpose programmable computer,for configuring and operating the computer when the storage media ordevice is read by the computer to perform the procedures describedherein. Embodiments of the system may also be considered to beimplemented as a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium,configured with a computer program, where the storage medium soconfigured causes a computer to operate in a specific and predefinedmanner to perform the functions described herein.

Furthermore, the system, processes and methods of the describedembodiments are capable of being distributed in a computer programproduct comprising a computer readable medium that bears computer usableinstructions for one or more processors. The medium may be provided invarious forms, including one or more diskettes, compact disks, tapes,chips, wireline transmissions, satellite transmissions, internettransmission or downloads, magnetic and electronic storage media,digital and analog signals, and the like. The computer useableinstructions may also be in various forms, including compiled andnon-compiled code.

C3VI-CMF and the Lumped Parameter Model

In one embodiment, there is provided a method for determining anindicator of hemodynamic function for a subject comprising providing alumped parameter model. In one embodiment the lumped parameter modelcomprises a plurality of sub-models defined by a set of time-varyingfunctions. The time-varying functions may be defined by at least onesub-model parameter. In one embodiment, the method comprises receiving aplurality of input parameters for the subject. For example, the inputparameters may comprise at least one input parameter obtained using anon-invasive cardiovascular imaging modality and at least one inputparameter indicative of blood pressure. An indicator of hemodynamicfunction may then be determined for the subject based on at least onesub-model parameter determined for the subject based on the lumpedparameter model and the plurality of input parameters.

Referring first to FIG. 1A, there is shown a schematic 100 of a lumpedparameter modeling including an anatomical representation of the heart,in accordance with one or more embodiments.

In one embodiment, the C3VI-CMF algorithm comprises a parameterestimation algorithm and a lumped-parameter model that includes severalsub-models allowing for the determination of hemodynamic indicators fora subject, such as an indicator associated with any combination ofcomplex valvular, vascular and ventricular diseases in both pre and postintervention conditions.

The model may include a plurality of sub-models, including, for example,sub-models representative of the left atrium 106, left ventricle 110,aortic valve 118, aortic valve regurgitation 116, mitral valve 114,mitral valve regurgitation 112, systemic circulation 108, and pulmonarycirculation 102. Abbreviations shown in FIG. 1A are similar as in Table1.

In one embodiment, the method comprises receiving a plurality of inputparameters for the subject. In one embodiment, the input parameterscomprise at least one input parameter obtained using a non-invasivecardiovascular imaging modality and at least one input parameterindicative of blood pressure. For example, input parameters may bemeasured using Doppler echocardiography 152 and sphygmomanometer 162.

In one embodiment, the methods and systems described herein integrate aparameter-estimation algorithm, the lumped-parameter model, non-invasivecardiovascular imaging, such as clinical Doppler echocardiography, andsphygmomanometer measurements to determine a patient-specific in silicomodel of the cardiovascular system. For example, in one embodiment thefollowing input parameters are determined based on Dopplerechocardiography: forward left ventricular outflow tract stroke volume,heart rate, ejection time, ascending aorta area, left ventricularoutflow tract area, aortic valve effective orifice area, mitral valveeffective orifice area, and grading of aortic and mitral valvesregurgitation severity.

Referring next to FIG. 1B, there is shown a schematic diagram 150 of thelumped parameter modeling including an electrical circuit representation154 of FIG. 1A, in accordance with one or more embodiments. Theschematic diagram 150 shows input parameters in the electrical circuitrepresentation 154 that may be determined based on non-invasivecardiovascular imaging such as by using Doppler echocardiography images152. The electrical circuit representation 154, including thecorresponding electrical component identities, may be used in order todetermine the lumped parameter model.

Referring next to FIG. 2 , there are shown five views 200, 210, 220,230, and 240 of a heart collected using Doppler echocardiography, inaccordance with one or more embodiments. For FIG. 2 , the followingabbreviations apply—LVOT: left ventricular outflow tract; AV: aorticvalve; LA: left atrium; RV: right ventricle; RA: right atrium; PV:pulmonary valve. A parasternal long axis view 200 of the heart is shown,including blood entering the left ventricle through the left atrium, andexiting through the left ventricular outflow tract leading to the aorticvalve. A parasternal short axis view 210 of the heart shows the aorticvalve leaflets opening and closing. Above the aortic valve is the rightventricle, through which blood exits the right ventricular outflow tractinto the pulmonary artery. An apical four-chamber view 220 of the heartshows the right atrium opening into the right ventricle, and the leftatrium opening into the left ventricle. An apical five-chamber view 230of the heart: mitral valve allows blood to enter the left ventricle,then exit through the aortic valve. An apical two-chamber view 240 ofthe heart shows blood moving from the left atrium, through the mitralvalve, into the left ventricle. These parameters may be measured in theparasternal long axis, parasternal short axis, apical two-chamber,apical four-chamber, and apical five-chamber views of the heart (FIG. 2).

Referring to FIGS. 3A, 3B, 3C, and 3D, there is shown Dopplerechocardiography measurements for left ventricular outflow tract and theaorta in accordance with one or more embodiments. FIG. 3A shows the leftventricular outflow tract diameter 300, measured in the parasternal longaxis view. FIG. 3B shows the left ventricular outflow tract velocitytime integral 310, taken as the average of the areas. FIG. 3C shows anascending aorta diameter 320, measured in the parasternal long axisview. FIG. 3D shows an aorta velocity time integral 330, taken as theaverage of the areas.

Other input parameters of the model may include systolic and diastolicblood pressures measured using a suitable device such as asphygmomanometer. Table 1 provides exemplary input parameters used forthe lumped parameter modelling and C3VI-CMF.

In one embodiment, the lumped parameter model comprises a plurality ofsub-models, the plurality of sub-models defined by a set of time-varyingfunctions comprising at least one sub-model parameter. An exemplary setof time varying functions for modelling cardiovascular function in alumped parameter model are provided without limitation below.

Heart-Arterial Model

Left Ventricle

Coupling between LV pressure and volume may be determined through a timevarying elastance E(t), a measure of cardiac muscle stiffness.

$\begin{matrix}{{E(t)} = \frac{P_{LV}(t)}{{V(t)} - V_{0}}} & (1)\end{matrix}$

where P_(LV)(t), V(t) and V₀ are left ventricle time-varying pressure,time-varying volume and unloaded volume, respectively¹⁵. The amplitudeof E(t) may be normalized with respect to maximal elastance E_(max),i.e., the slope of the end-systolic pressure-volume relation, givingE_(N)(t_(N))=E(t)/E_(max). Time may be normalized with respect to thetime to reach peak elastance, T_(Emax) (t_(N)=t/T_(Emax)).

$\begin{matrix}{{E_{\max}{E_{N}( t_{N} )}} = \frac{P_{LV}(t)}{{V(t)} - V_{0}}} & (2)\end{matrix}$

To model the normalized elastance function of the LV, three functionswere evaluated: (1) a summation of Gaussian functions^(20,21), (2) aBoltzmann Distribution²², and (3) a double Hill function^(23,24). Thelumped parameter model was simulated using these elastance functions forseveral different patient input parameters and it was determined thatthe double Hill function model gave the most accurate (physiologicallyrealistic) results for the pressure, flow, and volume waveforms. The useof the double Hill function was motivated by myocyte recruitment duringpreload, which is fundamentally a cooperative process²⁵ andconsequently, may be modeled by a sigmoidal Hill function²⁶. Both theGaussian function and Boltzmann distribution not only gave sub-parresults compared to the Hill model, but also did not model the myocyterecruitment mechanism: The Gaussian function is symmetric about amean²⁰, which is not correct for the present model because contractionand relaxation are not symmetric processes²⁷⁻³⁶. The

Boltzmann distribution is a probability distribution of physicalstates²², and hence does not capture the dynamic cooperativity ofmyocytes recruitment. Consequently, to model the LV time-varyingelastance curves (E), a double Hill function was used as thefollowing^(23,24):

$\begin{matrix}{{E(t)} = {{{N( \frac{( \frac{t}{\tau_{1}} )^{m1}}{1 + ( \frac{t}{\tau_{1}} )^{m1}} )}( \frac{1}{1 + ( \frac{t}{\tau_{2}} )^{m2}} )} + E_{\min}}} & (3)\end{matrix}$

where N, τ₁, τ₂, m₁, m₂ and E_(min) are elastane normalization,ascending time translation, descending time translation, ascendinggradient, descending gradient, and minimum elastance, respectively (seeTable 1). A double Hill function may be used to model the contractionand relaxation in the heart chambers: in equation 3, the first term inbrackets corresponds to the contraction of the chamber and the secondterm in brackets corresponds to the relaxation of the chamber. τ₁, τ₂,m₁, m₂ govern the time translation and gradient of the elastancefunction respectively. Parameter values used for the elastance functionwere adapted from²⁷⁻³⁶ to obtain physiologically realistic waveforms forpressure, volume, and flow that can be found in Table 1. While Table 1provides exemplary parameter values, the skilled person will appreciatethat they may be adjusted accordingly to reflect physiological realisticvalues for the embodiments described herein.

Left Atrium

Coupling between LA pressure and volume may be performed through a timevarying elastance E(t), a measure of cardiac muscle stiffness, using thesame procedure as outlined above for the LV. The elastance function usedfor the LA may be as defined in equations 2 and 3^(23,24); parametervalues used can be found in Table 1. Additionally, to take into accountthe relative onset of contraction for the LA and LV, a phase lag may beused in the LA elastance function²³. Specifically, LV contraction wasinitiated at T=0, and LA contraction was initiated at 0.85 T²³,resulting in a time delay of 0.15 T.

Modeling Heart Valves

Modeling Aortic Valve

Aortic valve. The aortic valve may be modeled using the net pressuregradient formulation (PG_(net)) across the aortic valve during LVejection. This formulation may express the instantaneous net pressuregradient across the aortic valve (after pressure recovery) as a functionof the instantaneous flow rate and the energy loss coefficient and linksthe LV pressure to the ascending aorta pressure:

$\begin{matrix}{{{{PG}_{net}\text{|}_{AV}} = {{\frac{2{\pi\rho}}{\sqrt{E_{L}{Co}\text{|}_{AV}}}\frac{\partial{Q(t)}}{\partial t}} + {\frac{\rho}{2E_{L}{Co}\text{|}_{AV}^{2}}{Q^{2}(t)}}}}{and}} & (4) \\{{E_{L}{Co}\text{|}_{AV}} = \frac{( {{EOA}\text{|}_{AV}} )A_{AO}}{A - {{EOA}\text{|}_{AV}}}} & (5)\end{matrix}$

where E_(L)Co|_(AV), EOA|_(AV),A_(AO), ρ and Q are the valvular energyloss coefficient, the effective orifice area, ascending aorta crosssectional area, fluid density and transvalvular flow rate, respectively.E_(L)Co|_(AV), representing the ‘recovered EOA’, may denote valveeffective orifice area adjusted for the area of the aorta at the levelof sinotubular junction.

Aortic regurgitation. Aortic regurgitation (AR) may be modeled using thesame analytical formulation as aortic stenosis. AR pressure gradient isthe difference between aortic pressure and LV pressure during diastole.

$\begin{matrix}{{{{PG}_{net}\text{|}_{AR}} = {{\frac{2{\pi\rho}}{\sqrt{E_{L}{Co}\text{|}_{AR}}}\frac{\partial{Q(t)}}{\partial t}} + {\frac{\rho}{2E_{L}{Co}\text{|}_{AR}^{2}}{Q^{2}(t)}}}}{and}} & ( {6A} ) \\{{E_{L}{Co}\text{|}_{AR}} = \frac{{EOA}_{AR}A_{LVOT}}{A_{LVOT} - {EOA}_{AR}}} & ( {6B} )\end{matrix}$

where E_(L)Co|_(AR), EOA_(AR) and A_(LVOT) are regurgitation energy losscoefficient, regurgitant effective orifice area and LVOT area,respectively.

Modeling Mitral Valve

Mitral valve. Mitral valve (MV) may be modeled using the analyticalformulation for the net pressure gradient (PG_(net)|_(MV)) across the MVduring LA ejection. This formulation expresses the instantaneous netpressure gradient across the LA and vena contracta as an unsteadyincompressible inviscid flow, where viscous effect is ignored, with aconstant density. PG_(net)|_(MV) expresses as a function of ρ, Q_(MV),EOA_(MV) and M_(MV) where these quantities may represent the density offluid, transvalvular flow rate, effective orifice area and inertance,respectively. In this formulation, the pressure recovery phenomenon maybe ignored because the effect is negligible due to the large volume ofthe LV³⁷.

$\begin{matrix}{{{PG}_{net}\text{|}_{AR}} = {{\frac{M_{MV}}{{EOA}_{M_{V}}}\frac{\partial{Q_{MV}(t)}}{\partial t}} + {\frac{\rho}{2{EOA}\text{|}_{MV}^{2}}{Q_{MV}^{2}(t)}}}} & (7)\end{matrix}$

Mitral regurgitation. Mitral regurgitation (MR) may be modeled usingequation 8. MR pressure gradient is the difference between mitralpressure and LA pressure during systole.

$\begin{matrix}{{{PG}_{net}\text{|}_{MR}} = {{\frac{M_{MV}}{{EOA}_{MR}}\frac{\partial{Q(t)}}{\partial t}} + {\frac{\rho}{2{EOA}\text{|}_{MR}^{2}}{Q^{2}(t)}}}} & (8)\end{matrix}$

where EOA|_(MR) is MR effective orifice area.

Pulmonary Flow

The pulmonary valve flow waveform may be simulated by a rectified sinecurve with duration t_(ee) and amplitude Q_(MPV) as the following.

$\begin{matrix}{{{Q_{PV}(t)} = {Q_{MPV}{\sin( \frac{\pi t}{t_{ee}} )}}},{{t \leq t_{ee}};{{Q_{PV}(t)} = 0}},{t_{ee} < t \leq T}} & (9)\end{matrix}$

where Q_(MPV), t_(ee) and T are mean flow rate of the pulmonary valve,end-ejection time and cardiac cycle time period, respectively. In thisstudy, Forward LVOT-SV may be the only input flow condition which isreliable to measure using DE. Q_(MPV), the mean flow rate of thepulmonary valve, was optimized so that the lump-parameter model couldreproduce the desirable DE-measured Forward LVOT-SV.

Determining Arterial Compliance and Peripheral Resistance

The total systemic resistance may be computed as the quotient of theaverage brachial pressure and the cardiac output (assuming a negligibleperipheral venous pressure (mean ˜5 mmHg) compared to aortic pressure(mean ˜100 mmHg). This total systemic resistance represents theelectrical equivalent resistance for all resistances in the currentlumped parameter model. Because what the left ventricle faces is thetotal systemic resistance and not the individual resistances, for thesake of simplicity the aortic resistance, R_(ao), and systemic veinresistance, R_(SV), may be considered as constants and adjust thesystemic artery resistance, R_(SA), according to the obtained totalsystemic resistance. Systemic artery resistance may be evaluated usingan optimization scheme outlined in the patient-specific parameterestimation section.

Physiologically, arterial hypertension is determined by two factors: thedegree of reduction in the caliber of small arteries or arterioles withan ensuing increase in systemic vascular resistance and mean bloodpressure, and the extent of reduction in the arterial compliance with aresulting increase in pulse pressure (systolic minus diastolic bloodpressure). For each degree of hypertension, a predicted pulse pressuremay be fit to the actual pulse pressure (known by arm cuffsphygmomanometer) obtained from clinical study by adjusting compliances(aorta (C_(ao)) and systemic (C_(SAC))). Therefore, for each degree ofarterial hypertension, the compliance may be evaluated using anoptimization scheme outlined in the patient-specific parameterestimation section.

Patient-Specific Parameter Estimation

The lumped-parameter model may receive patient-specific parameters asits inputs: forward left ventricular outflow tract stroke volume(Forward LVOT-SV), cardiac cycle time (T), ejection time (T_(EJ)),EOA_(AV), EOA_(MV), A_(AO), A_(LVOT), EOA_(AR), EOA_(MR) and brachialsystolic and diastolic pressures measured by a sphygmomanometer or othersuitable device. The following procedure was used to set up thepatient-specific lumped-parameter model in the following sequence:

1) Flow Inputs

The lumped-parameter model may use one reliably measured flow parameteras an input: forward left-ventricular outflow tract stroke volume(Forward LVOT-SV) (Equation 10). Forward LVOT-SV is defined as thevolume of blood that passes through the LVOT cross sectional area everytime the heart beats.

$\begin{matrix}{{{Forward}\mspace{14mu}{LVOT}\text{-}{SV}} = {{A_{LVOT} \times {VTI}_{LVOT}} = {\frac{\pi \times ( D_{LVOT} )^{2}}{4} \times {VTI}_{LVOT}}}} & (10)\end{matrix}$

where D_(LVOT), A_(LVOT), and VTI_(LVOT) are LVOT diameter, LVOT area,and LVOT velocity-time integral, respectively, which may be reliablymeasured using Doppler echocardiography (see FIGS. 3A and 3B).

2) Time Inputs

Cardiac cycle time (T) and ejection time (T_(EJ)) may be measured usingDoppler echocardiography or another suitable cardiovascular imagingmodality.

3) Aortic Valve Inputs:

A_(AO) and EOA|_(AV) were calculated using Equations 11 and 12,respectively.

$\begin{matrix}{A_{AO} = \frac{\pi \times ( D_{AO} )^{2}}{4}} & (11) \\{{{EOA}\text{|}_{AV}} = \frac{{Forward}\mspace{14mu}{LVOT}\text{-}{SV}}{{VTI}_{AO}}} & (12)\end{matrix}$

where D_(AO) and VTI_(AO) are the diameter of the ascending aorta andvelocity time integral in the ascending aorta, respectively (see FIGS.3C and 3D). VTI_(AO) is the amount of the blood flow going through theaorta which was obtained by tracing the aorta pulse wave flow Dopplerenvelope. To model the blood flow in the forward direction, A_(AO) andEOA|_(AV) may be substituted into Equation (4) and the constantinductance

$( \frac{2\pi\rho}{\sqrt{E_{L}{Co}\text{|}_{AV}}} )$and variable resistance

$( {\frac{\rho}{2E_{L}{Co}\text{|}_{AV}^{2}}{Q(t)}} )$parameters may be calculated.4) Aortic Regurgitation Inputs:

Referring to FIGS. 4A, and 4B, there is shown a Doppler echocardiographyinvestigation for aortic valve regurgitation, in accordance with one ormore embodiments. FIGS. 4A, and 4B may be for a subject with Moderateaortic valve regurgitation (0.1 mm²<EOA_(AR)<0.3 mm²). FIG. 4A shows aparasternal short axis view. FIG. 4B shows a parasternal long axis view.

To evaluate aortic valve regurgitation severity, aortic valve colorDoppler images may be used in both long axis, and short axis views. Thisimage may be an example of moderate to severe aortic valve regurgitationin a patient with AS who received TAVR (0.2 mm²<EOA_(AR)<0.3 mm²).

To model blood flow in the reverse direction (aortic valveinsufficiency), EOA_(AR) and A_(LVOT) were substituted into Equation (6)to calculate the variable resistance

$( {\frac{\rho}{2E_{L}{Co}\text{|}_{AR}^{2}}{Q(t)}} )$and constant inductance

$( \frac{2\pi\rho}{\sqrt{E_{L}{Co}\text{|}_{AR}}} )$parameters. For patients with no insufficiency, the reverse branch isnot included. A_(LVOT) was quantified using Doppler echocardiographymeasurements (See e.g. FIGS. 4A and 4B). The EOA_(AR) may be calculatedby dividing the regurgitant volume by the time-velocity integral ofregurgitant flow using continuous wave Doppler. However, such acalculation may not always yield a correct EOA_(AR) and therefore maynot be reliable. Therefore, to quantify Doppler aortic regurgitanteffective orifice area (EOA_(AR)), aortic valve regurgitation may beinvestigated using color Doppler images in both the long axis and shortaxis views by experienced cardiologists and graded qualitatively aseither mild regurgitation (equivalent to EOA_(AR)<0.1 mm²), mild tomoderate regurgitation (equivalent to 0.1 mm²<EOA_(AR)<0.2 mm²),moderate to severe regurgitation (equivalent to 0.2 mm²<EOA_(AR)<0.3mm²), or severe regurgitation (equivalent to EOA_(AR)>0.3 mm²) (seeFIGS. 4A and 4B for examples of moderate to severe aortic valveregurgitation in a patient with AS who received TAVR).^(38,39)5) Mitral Valve Inputs:

Referring to FIGS. 5A and 5B, there are shown Mitral valve dimensions.FIG. 5A shows Mitral valve diameter (d₁), measured in apical two-chamberview; FIG. 5B shows Mitral Valve diameter (d₂), measured in apicalfour-chamber view. Mitral valve is an ellipse and its area is quantifiedusing

${A_{MV} = \frac{\pi*d_{1}*d_{2}}{4}}.$

To model the blood flow in the forward direction, mitral valve area wassubstituted into Equation (8) and the constant inductance

$( \frac{M_{MV}}{{EOA}_{M_{V}}} )$and variable resistance

$( {\frac{\rho}{2{EOA}\text{|}_{MV}^{2}}{Q_{MV}(t)}} )$parameters were calculated. Mitral valve is approximately an ellipse andits area was quantified using

$A_{MV} = \frac{\pi*d_{1}*d_{2}}{4}$where d₁ and d₂ are mitral-valve diameters measured in the apicaltwo-chamber and apical four-chamber views, respectively.6) Mitral Regurgitation Inputs:

Referring to FIGS. 6A, 6B, and 6C there is shown a Dopplerechocardiography investigation for mitral valve regurgitation, inaccordance with one or more embodiments.

To evaluate mitral valve regurgitation severity, mitral valve colorDoppler images may be used in apical four-chamber view (FIG. 6A),parasternal long axis view (FIG. 6B), and apical two-chamber view (FIG.6C). The three images shown in FIGS. 6A, 6B, and 6C are of the samepatient, and each demonstrates severe mitral valve regurgitation. Thesefigures are examples of severe mitral valve regurgitation in a patientwith AS who received TAVR (0.2 mm²<EOA_(MR)>0.3 mm²).

To model blood flow in the reverse direction (mitral-valveinsufficiency), EOA_(MR) may be substituted into Equation (9) tocalculate the variable resistance

$( {\frac{\rho}{2{EOA}\text{|}_{MR}^{2}}{Q(t)}} )$and constant inductance

$( \frac{M_{MV}}{{EOA}_{MR}} )$parameters. For patients with no insufficiency, the reverse branch maynot be included. As described for the aortic-valve regurgitation,calculation of the regurgitant effective orifice area by dividing theregurgitant volume by the time-velocity integral of regurgitant flowusing continuous wave Doppler may not be reliable. Therefore to quantifymitral regurgitant effective orifice area (EOA_(MR)), mitral valveregurgitation may be investigated using color Doppler images in theapical four-chamber, parasternal long axis, and apical two-chamber viewsby experienced cardiologists and graded qualitatively as either mildregurgitation (equivalent to EOA_(MR)<0.1 mm²), mild to moderateregurgitation (equivalent to 0.1 mm²<EOA_(MR)<0.2 mm²), moderate tosevere regurgitation (equivalent to 0.2 mm²<EOA_(MR)<0.3 mm²), or severeregurgitation (equivalent to EOA_(MR)>0.3 mm²) (see FIGS. 6A, 6B, and 6Cfor examples of severe mitral-valve regurgitation in a patient whoreceived TAVR).7) End Systolic Volume and End Diastolic Volume

Referring to FIGS. 7A, 7B, 7C, and 7D there are shown LV volumes, inaccordance with one or more embodiments. FIGS. 7A and 7B show an end ofsystole LV volume in apical four-chamber view and apical two chamberview respectively. FIGS. 7C and 7D show an end of diastole LV volume inapical four-chamber view and apical two-chamber view respectively.

End systolic volume (ESV) or end diastolic volume (EDV) measured usingDoppler echocardiography may be input into the lumped-parameter model toadjust starting and ending volumes in the P-V loop diagram. For thispurpose, the Biplane Ellipsoid model may be used to calculate theinstantaneous LV volume at the end of diastole and the end of systoleusing the following Equation.

$\begin{matrix}{\text{∀} = \frac{A_{1}*A_{2}}{{AVG}( {{L_{1}\&}\mspace{14mu} L_{2}} )}} & (13)\end{matrix}$

where A₁, A₂, L₁, L₂ and AVG (L₁&L₂) are LV area measured in the apicalfour-chamber view, LV area measured in the apical two-chamber view, LVlength measured in the apical four-chamber view, LV length measured inthe apical two-chamber view, and average of these two LV lengths,respectively (Refer to FIGS. 7A, 7B, 7C, and 7D for examples).

Ejection Fraction may be Calculated as Follows:

$\begin{matrix}{{EF}{= \frac{{EDV} - {ESV}}{EDV}}} & (14)\end{matrix}$8) Left-Ventricle Inputs

The cardiac cycle time (T) may be substituted into τ₁, τ₂, m₁ and m₂ inTable 1 and then those values may be substituted into Equation 3 todetermine the elastance function.

9) Left-Atrium Inputs

The cardiac cycle time (T) may be substituted into τ₁, τ₂, m₁ and m₂ inTable 1 and then those values may be substituted into Equation 3 todetermine the elastance function.

10) Parameter Estimation for Systemic Circulation:

Parameters R_(SA), C_(SAC), and C_(ao) may be optimized so that theaorta pressure calculated using the model matches the patient's systolicand diastolic brachial pressures measured using a sphygmomanometer (seecomputational algorithm section for details). The initial values ofthese parameters are given in Table 1.

Computational Algorithm

FIG. 8 shows one embodiment of a process for optimizing a lumpedparameter model in accordance with the present disclosure. Thelumped-parameter model may be numerically analyzed by creating andsolving a system of ordinary differential equations, for example inMatlab Simscape™ (MathWorks, Inc.). These differential equations may beenhanced by adding additional functions written in Matlab and Simscape.Matlab's ode23t trapezoidal rule variable-step solver may be used tosolve the system of differential equations with an initial time step of0.1 milliseconds. At 802, the convergence residual criterion may be setto 10^(−6 and) initial voltages and currents of capacitors and inductorsmay be set to zero. At 804, the model may be run for several cycles toreach steady state before starting the response optimization processdescribed below.

A double Hill function representation of a normalized elastance curvefor human adults^(23,24) may be used to generate a signal to model LVelastance. It was shown that this elastance formulation may correctlyrepresent the LV function independent from its healthy and/orpathological condition. Simulations may start at the onset of isovolumiccontraction. The instantaneous LV volume, V(t), may be calculated usingthe LV pressure, P_(LV), and the time varying elastance (Equation 1).The LV flow rate may be subsequently calculated as the time derivativeof the instantaneous LV volume. The same approach may be used to obtainthe left-atrium volume, pressure and flow rate. PLV may be firstcalculated using the initial values of the model input parameters fromTable 1. The Forward LVOT-SV calculated using the lumped-parameter modelmay be fitted to the one measured (Equation 10) by optimizing Q_(MPV)(as detailed below). Finally, for each patient R_(SA), C_(SAC), andC_(ao) may be optimized to fit the aorta pressure from the model to thepatient systolic and diastolic pressures measured using asphygmomanometer.

In order to correctly simulate the conditions of the body of eachpatient, some of the parameters of the model may be optimized so thatthe lumped-parameter model reproduces the physiological measurementsperformed in the patient. An extensive parameter sensitivity analysiswas conducted. It was found using such a sensitivity analysis thenegligible effect of changes in the pulmonary parameters (e.g., C_(PVC))on the model output variables. These pulmonary parameters are thereforenot included in the parameter-identification process and the valuesgiven in Table 1 were used.

Simulink Design Optimization toolbox may be used to optimize theresponse of the lumped-parameter model using the trust region reflectivealgorithm implemented in the Matlab fmincon function. The responseoptimization may be performed in two sequential steps with tolerances of10⁻⁶ (FIG. 8 ). At 806, the error between the Forward LVOT-SV calculatedby the lumped-parameter model and the one measured in each patient isdetermined. At 808, once the error between the Forward LVOT-SVcalculated by the lumped-parameter model and the one measured in eachpatient is below an error threshold (for example, 10⁻⁵), the method mayproceed to the second step. At 810, in the first step Q_(MPV), the meanflow rate of the pulmonary valve may be optimized to minimize the errorbetween the Forward LVOT-SV calculated by the lumped-parameter model andthe one measured in each patient and the method continues at 806.

At 812 the systolic and diastolic pressures determined from the lumpedparameter model are compared. At 816, if the error between the two isbelow an error threshold (for example, 10⁻⁵), the method may becompleted. In the second step of the optimization, R_(SA), C_(SAC), andC_(ao) may be optimized at 814 so that maximum and minimum of the aortapressure were respectively equal to the systolic and diastolic pressuresmeasured using a sphygmomanometer in each patient.

C3VI-CMF Provides Quantifiable Hemodynamic Indicators of CardiovascularFunction

The sophisticated vascular network connected to the heart, imposeboundary conditions on it. As the local flow dynamics are influenced bydownstream and upstream conditions, replicating correct flow andpressure conditions is critical for determining indicators ofhemodynamic function and developing a patient-specific cardiovascularsimulator. This not only gives patient-specific flow and pressureconditions to the local flow but also enables investigation of theeffects of local hemodynamics on the global circulatory physiology.Investigating the details of flow and pressures in the presence of C3VIis very challenging because of the interactions between diseaseconstituents and amplifying adverse effects of one another. Althoughcardiac catheterization is the gold standard for evaluating pressure andflow through the heart and circulatory system in clinics, it isinvasive, expensive, and high risk and therefore not practical fordiagnosis in routine daily clinical practice or serial follow-upexaminations. Most importantly, cardiac catheterization only providesaccess to the blood pressure in very limited regions rather than detailsof the physiological pulsatile flow and pressures throughout the heartand the circulatory system.

Notably as demonstrated in Example 1 and shown in FIGS. 9 and 10 , useof the patient-specific C3VI-CMF lumped parameter model described hereinwas validated against gold-standard cardiac catheterization data andshown to accurately predict beat-to-beat pressure waveforms and peakpressures.

In some embodiments, C3VI-CMF may also provide other hemodynamicindicators such as details of the physiological pulsatile flow andpressures throughout the heart and the circulatory system, including insubjects with C3VI. For example, it may provide instantaneous quantitiesincluding, but not limited to, left-ventricle pressure, aorta pressure,mitral and left-ventricle flow, left ventricle and left atrium volumes,etc. For example, FIGS. 11 to 13 show samples of C3VI-CMF calculationsfor the same C3VI patients (Patients #1, #2 and #3) whose catheter andC3VI-CMF data for validation are shown (FIGS. 9A(i) 9A(ii), 9B(i),9B(ii), 9C(i), and 9C(ii)). Use of the C3VI-CMF lumped parameter modelwas able to predict and quantify changes in various hemodynamicindicators including heart workload pre and post intervention. As shownin FIG. 14 , the embodiments described herein allow for thedetermination of the relative contributions of one or more C3VI diseaseconstituents, such as mitral valve regurgitation or aortic valvestenosis, to cardiovascular disease in a subject. This information maythen be used for diagnosing, monitoring or prognosing cardiovasculardisease or to select specific interventions for the treatment ofcardiovascular disease.

Implementation

In one or more embodiments, C3VI-CMF as described herein may beimplemented without imitation as: (1) a personal wearable device or as amobile application for patient monitoring; (2) a module incorporated inthe software of Doppler echocardiography machines for diagnosis andprediction; and (3) a monitoring and diagnostic device for ambulatorycare and intensive and critical care unit.

Referring next to FIG. 15 , there is a method diagram 1500 showing anon-invasive method for determining an indicator of hemodynamic functionfor a subject in accordance with one or more embodiments.

At 1502, the method comprises providing a lumped parameter model, thelumped parameter model comprising a plurality of sub-models, theplurality of sub-models defined by a set of time-varying functionscomprising at least one sub-model parameter. As described herein, thelumped parameter model models cardiovascular function by modelling bloodfluid dynamics, e.g., flow and pressure as a function of time within theheart and circulatory system.

At 1504, the method comprises receiving a plurality of input parametersfor the subject, the input parameters comprising at least one inputparameter obtained using a non-invasive imaging modality and at leastone input parameter indicative of blood pressure. In one embodiment, theinput parameters are obtained using Doppler echocardiography and asphygmomanometer or other suitable device. In one embodiment, the inputparameters comprise one or more cardiovascular anatomical measurements.Patient-specific input parameters may include forward left ventricularoutflow tract stroke volume (Forward LVOT-SV), cardiac cycle time (T),ejection time (T_(EJ)), EOA_(AV), EOA_(MV), A_(AO), A_(LVOT), EOA_(AR),EOA_(MR) as described herein and determined based on Dopplerechocardiography imaging data.

In one embodiment, the input parameters indicative of blood pressurecomprise a diastolic blood pressure and a systolic blood pressure forthe subject.

At 1506, the method comprises determining at least one sub-modelparameter in the plurality of sub-models for the subject based on thelumped parameter model and the plurality of input parameters. Forexample, in one embodiment the method comprises determining at least onesub-model parameter by solving a system of differential equations basedon the time-varying functions using a computer processor.

At 1508, the method comprises determining the indicator of hemodynamicfunction for the subject based on at least one sub-model parameter forthe subject. In some embodiments, the indicator of hemodynamic functionis the sub-model parameter. For example, in one embodiment the sub-modelparameter is a value for the net pressure gradient (PG_(net)|_(MV))across the mitral valve during left atrium ejection, optionally amaximum or minimum value, which may also be an indicator of hemodynamicfunction Alternatively, the indicator of hemodynamic function may bebased on one or more sub-model parameters determined for the subject. Asused herein, the phrase “determining the indicator of hemodynamicfunction for the subject based on at least one sub-model parameter forthe subject” includes but is not limited to recognizing that adetermined value for a sub-model parameter is also an indicator ofhemodynamic function.

In one embodiment, the lumped parameter model comprises one or moresub-models selected from a left ventricle sub-model, a left atriumsub-model, an aortic valve sub-model, a mitral valve sub-model, asystemic sub-model and a pulmonary circulation sub-model.

In one embodiment, one of the sub-models is a left ventricle sub-modeland the left ventricle sub-model may be determined based on a timevarying normalized elastance function, optionally modelled using adouble Hill function.

In one embodiment, one of the sub-models is a left atrium sub-model andthe left atrium sub-model may be defined by a time varying normalizedelastance function, optionally modelled using a double Hill function.

In one embodiment, one of the sub-models is an aortic valve sub-modeland the aortic valve sub-model may be defined by a time-varying netpressure gradient function across the aortic valve during left ventricleejection, optionally wherein the aortic valve sub-model may be furtherdefined by a function representative of aortic regurgitation.

In one embodiment, one of the sub-models is a mitral valve sub-model andthe mitral valve sub-model may be defined by a net pressure gradientfunction across the mitral valve during left atrium ejection, optionallywherein the mitral valve sub-model may further be defined by a functionrepresentative of mitral regurgitation.

In one embodiment, one of the sub-models may be a pulmonary circulationsub-model and the pulmonary circulation sub-model may be defined by arectified sine curve waveform with a duration (t_(ee)) and amplitudebased on a mean flow rate of the pulmonary valve (Q_(MPV)).

Optionally, the embodiments described herein further comprise optimizingone or more sub-model parameters based on subject data. For example, inone embodiment the method comprises optimizing a sub-model parameter forthe mean flow rate of the pulmonary valve (Q_(MPV)) based on minimizingthe error between a sub-model parameter value of LVOT-SV determined forthe subject using the lumped parameter model and a value of LVOT-SV forthe subject determined using the non-invasive imaging modality.

In one embodiment, one of the sub-models is a systemic sub-model, andthe systemic sub-model may be defined by sub-model parameters forsystemic artery resistance (R_(SA)), aorta compliance (C_(ao)) andsystemic compliance (C_(SAC)).

Optionally, the method may further comprise optimizing sub-modelparameter values for systemic artery resistance (R_(SA)), aortacompliance (C_(ao)) and systemic compliance (C_(SAC)) based onminimizing the error between values of systolic and diastolic bloodpressure determined for the subject using the lumped parameter model andvalues of systolic and diastolic blood pressure for the subjectdetermined using a sphygmomanometer or other suitable device.

In one embodiment, the indicator of hemodynamic function is an indicatorof global hemodynamic function. For example, in one embodiment theindicator of global hemodynamic function is selected from the group of aleft ventricle workload, a left-ventricular end-diastolic pressure andan instantaneous left-ventricular pressure. In one embodiment, theindicator of global hemodynamic function is determined at least based ona determined sub-model parameter of at least one sub-model in theplurality of sub-models, optionally wherein the determined sub-modelparameter is a determined systemic sub-model parameter.

In one embodiment, the indicator of hemodynamic function is an indicatorof local hemodynamic function. For example, in one embodiment theindicator of hemodynamic function is selected from the group of a leftventricle pressure, an aorta pressure, an atrium pressure, an aorticvalve pressure, a mitral valve pressure, a mitral flow rate, a leftventricle flow, an aorta flow, a left ventricle volume and a left atrialvolume as well as flow, pressure and volume through the circulatorysystem.

Optionally, the indicator of hemodynamic function may be an indicator ofheart workload. For example, in one embodiment the indicator ofhemodynamic function is an integral of LV pressure and volume estimatedas the area covered by a LV pressure-volume loop.

The embodiments described herein may be used for generating apatient-specific model of cardiovascular function at a first time pointbased on a first set of input parameters and optionally determining anindicator of hemodynamic function for the subject at a second time pointbased on one or more subsequent input parameters. For example, apatient-specific lumped parameter model determined using imaging dataand blood pressure data may be updated at a later time point using onlyblood pressure data in order to determine an indicator of hemodynamicfunction and monitor a subject for cardiovascular disease. In oneembodiment, the method comprises receiving one or more subsequent inputparameters for the subject, and determining a subsequent indicator ofhemodynamic function for the subject based on the at least one sub-modelparameter determined based on the lumped parameter model and theplurality of input parameters, and the subsequent input parameter. Inone embodiment, the subsequent input parameter is indicative of bloodpressure, such as diastolic or systolic blood pressure. Accordingly, theembodiments described herein may be used for determining a change incardiovascular disease in the subject based on a change in one or moreindicators of hemodynamic function relative to one or more subsequentindicators of hemodynamic function.

The methods described herein may be used for diagnosing, monitoring orprognosing cardiovascular disease in the subject based on the indicatorof hemodynamic function, optionally based on a plurality of indicatorsof hemodynamic function. As used herein “diagnosing, monitoring orprognosing cardiovascular disease in the subject” includes, but is notlimited to, diagnosing, monitoring or prognosing C3VI as well aspredicting the effect of an intervention, such as a surgicalintervention, optionally an intervention for C3VI, on cardiovasculardisease or dysfunction in the subject.

In some embodiments, the method may further comprise comparing theindicator of hemodynamic function for the subject to a control value.For example, in one embodiment the control value is representative ofhemodynamic function in subjects with cardiovascular disease or aspecific dysfunction and a similarity between the indicator ofhemodynamic function for the subject and the control value is indicativeof cardiovascular disease or specific dysfunction in the subject. Insome embodiments, the control value may be a threshold value and anindicator of hemodynamic function below or above the control value isindicative of cardiovascular disease or specific dysfunction.

In some embodiments, cardiovascular disease may comprise complexvalvular-vascular-ventricular interactions (C3VI). These may include,without limitation, valvular disease such as aortic valve stenosis,mitral valve stenosis, aortic valve regurgitation or mitral valveinsufficiency, ventricular disease such as left ventricle dysfunction orheart failure, vascular disease such as hypertension, paravalvularleaks, or LV outflow tract obstruction, or changes due to surgicalprocedures for C3VI such as valve replacement or left ventricularreconstructive surgery.

In some embodiments, method may further comprise determining therelative contribution of one or more physiological parameters such as aC3VI disease constituents to cardiovascular disease in the subject,optionally by comparing LV workload under different conditions. Forexample, determining the relative contribution of one or more one C3VIdisease constituents to cardiovascular disease in the subject maycomprise comparing LV workload for the subject with LV workload for thesubject determined using the lumped parameter model wherein one or moresub-model parameters are modified to represent a modified C3VI diseaseconstituent, optionally a healthy or normal C3VI disease constituent.The C3VI disease constituent may be, without limitation, aortic valvestenosis, aortic regurgitation, mitral regurgitation, left ventriclehypertrophy and dysfunction, heart failure, vascular disease (likehypertension), or paravalvular leakage after intervention. In someembodiments, the methods described herein may be used to predict theeffects of an intervention or treatment, such as a surgical procedure,to address a particular C3VI disease constituent by comparing indicatorsof hemodynamic function, optionally heart workload, under variousconditions associated with modified sub-model parameters.

Accordingly, the methods described herein may further comprise selectinga treatment for the subject based on the indicator of hemodynamicfunction, optionally based on a plurality of indicators of hemodynamicfunction or based on the relative contribution of the one or more C3VIdisease constituents to cardiovascular disease in the subject.Optionally, the embodiments described herein include administering aselected treatment to the subject, such as by performing a surgicalprocedure.

In one or more embodiments, the methods described herein comprisereceiving a plurality of input parameters for the subject, such ascardiovascular imaging data and/or blood pressure data, and thendetermining based on the input parameters and the lumped parametermodel. The input parameters may be pre-determined or storedelectronically prior to being received and processed according to theembodiments described herein. Alternatively, the methods may comprisedetermining the plurality of input parameters for the subject by testingthe subject. For example, in one embodiment the method comprisesmeasuring or performing Doppler echocardiography and/or sphygmomanometryon the subject to determine one or more input parameters such ascardiovascular anatomical measurements and/or blood pressure data.

In one embodiment, the methods described herein may be performed using asystem. For example, in one embodiment there is provided a system fordetermining an indicator of hemodynamic function for a subject. In oneembodiment, the system comprises a memory and a processor incommunication with the memory. In one embodiment, the memory comprises alumped parameter model and the processor is configured to receive aplurality of input parameters for the subject and determine at least onesub-model parameter based on the lumped parameter model and theplurality of input parameters. In one embodiment the processor isconfigured to determine the indicator of hemodynamic function for thesubject based on at least one sub-model parameter for the subject.

Reference is next made to FIG. 16 , there is shown a system diagram 1600of a non-invasive system for determining an indicator of hemodynamicfunction. The system for determining an indicator of hemodynamicfunction may include one or more user devices 1616, a network 1604, anda server 1606. Also shown is a subject 1612 having a heart 1614 and oneor more cardiac monitoring devices 1610.

The one or more user devices 1616 may be used by an end user to access asoftware application (not shown), either via a web browser or locally atdevice 1616. The software application may run at server 1606 and beaccessible over network 1604 to the web browser at user device 1616.Alternatively, the user of user device 1616 may download an app from anapp store such as the Google® Play Store or the Apple App Store. Theuser device 1616 may be a desktop computer, mobile device, or laptopcomputer. The user device 1616 may be in communication with server 1606,and may allow a user to review a user profile stored in a database atserver 1606.

The user of user device 1616 may be the subject 1612, optionally beingmonitored by cardiac monitoring device 1610. In an alternate embodiment,a separate user such as a medical professional (not shown) may operateuser device 1616 in order to determine an indicator of hemodynamicfunction for subject 1612.

The user device 1616 may be any two-way communication device withcapabilities to communicate with other devices. The user device 1616 maybe a mobile device such as mobile devices running the Google® Android®operating system or Apple® iOS® operating system.

Each user device 1616 includes and executes a client application, suchas a cardiovascular modelling application, which communicates with orotherwise receives data obtained from cardiac monitoring device 1610.

The cardiovascular modelling application on user device 1616 maycommunicate with server 1606 using an Application Programming Interface(API) endpoint, and may send and receive data such as cardiacmeasurement data, sub-model parameters and an indicator of hemodynamicfunction.

Network 1604 may be any network or network components capable ofcarrying data including the Internet, Ethernet, fiber optics, satellite,mobile, wireless (e.g. Wi-Fi, WiMAX), SS7 signaling network, fixed line,local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), a directpoint-to-point connection, mobile data networks (e.g., Universal MobileTelecommunications System (UMTS), 3GPP Long-Term Evolution Advanced (LTEAdvanced), Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX),etc.) and others, including any combination of these.

Subject 1612 may be a patient using a cardiac monitoring device 1610 ina clinical setting, or an individual who uses a cardiac monitoringdevice 1610 for informational purposes, such as ongoing monitoring ofcardiovascular health. The subject 1612 may have a user profile onservice 1606 that may remotely track the cardiac measurement dataincluding indicators of hemodynamic function, along with measurementsmade by the cardiac monitoring device 1610.

Cardiac monitoring device 1610 may comprise one or more devices formonitoring the subject's heart. For example, in one embodiment thecardiac monitoring device 1610 comprises a non-invasive imagingmodality. Cardiac monitoring device 1610 may include one or moredifferent devices, such as a Doppler ultrasonograph and/or asphygmomanometer. Data from one or more cardiac monitoring devices 1610may be provided to the user device 1616. For example, a Dopplerultrasonograph may be used for Doppler echocardiographic analysis of theheart 1614 of subject 1612, and may provide at least one input parameterfor the lumped parameter model in a software application running at userdevice 1616 or at server 1606. A sphygmomanometer or other similardevice may also be used to obtain at least one input parameter for thelumped parameter model in a software application running at user device1616 or at server 1606.

In one embodiment, the ultrasonograph comprises a transducer probe forsending and receiving sound waves, a processing unit for receiving anelectrical signal representative of the reflected sound waves, andtransducer pulse controls for changing the amplitude, frequency andduration of the pulses emitted from the transducer probe.

The at least one input parameter may be collected wirelessly from thecardiac monitoring device 1610 by the user device 1616, which may be inwireless communication using, for example, Bluetooth or another wirelessdata transmission protocol. Alternatively, user device 1616 may be inwired connection to the cardiac device 1610. The at least one inputparameter may include a forward left ventricular outflow tract strokevolume (LVOT-SV), a heart rate, an ejection time, an ascending aortaarea, a left ventricular outflow tract area, an aortic valve effectiveorifice area, a mitral valve effective orifice area, an indicator ofaortic valve regurgitation severity and an indicator of mitral valveregurgitation severity. The at least one input parameter may furtherinclude systolic and diastolic blood pressure data. In some embodiments,one or more of the input parameters may be determined by the system,optionally user device 1616 or server 1606, based on raw or processeddata obtained from cardiac monitoring device 1610, such as cardiacimaging data.

In one embodiment, the functions of the user device 1616 may beperformed by the cardiac monitoring device 1610. In this embodiment, thecardiac monitoring device 1610 may provide the software application fordetermining an indicator of hemodynamic function.

The server 1606 is in network communication with the user device 1616.The server 1606 may have an application server and a database. Thedatabase and the application server may be provided on the same server,may be configured as virtual machines, or may be configured ascontainers. The server 1606 may run on a cloud provider such as Amazon®Web Services (AWS®).

The server 1606 may host a web application or an Application ProgrammingInterface (API) endpoint that the user device 1616 or cardiacmeasurement device 1610 may interact with via network 1604. The requestsmade to the API endpoint of server 1606 may be made in a variety ofdifferent formats, such as JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) oreXtensible Markup Language (XML).

The database may store subject information including cardiac measurementdata history, lumped parameter model data and hemodynamic indicatordata. The database may be a Structured Query Language (SQL) such asPostgreSQL or MySQL or a not only SQL (NoSQL) database such as MongoDB.

In one embodiment, the indicator of hemodynamic function determinedaccording to the embodiments described herein is communicated to a user.For example, in one or more embodiments, the indicator of hemodynamicfunction is communicated to a user by outputting the indicator on adisplay of user device 1616 or cardiac monitoring device 1610.

Referring next to FIG. 17 , there is a device diagram 1700 of userdevice 1616 (see FIG. 16 ). In an alternate embodiment, thefunctionality of user device 1616 may be provided by cardiac monitoringdevice 1610 and the device diagram 1700 is for the cardiac monitoringdevice 1610 or it may be provided by server 1606 and the device diagram1700 is for server 1606.

In one embodiment, the methods described herein may be performed usingdevice 1700. For example, in one embodiment there is provided a devicefor determining an indicator of hemodynamic function for a subject.

The user device 1700 includes one or more of a network unit 1704, adisplay 1706, a processor unit 1708, a memory unit 1710, I/O unit 1712,a user interface engine 1714, a power unit 1716.

The network unit 1704 can include wired or wireless connectioncapabilities. The network unit 1704 can include a radio thatcommunicates utilizing CDMA, GSM, GPRS or Bluetooth protocol accordingto standards such as IEEE 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, or 802.11n. Thenetwork unit 1704 can be used by the user device 1700 to communicatewith other devices or computers.

Network unit 1704 may communicate using a wireless transceiver totransmit and receive information via a local wireless connection withthe cardiac monitoring device. The network unit 1704 may providecommunications over the local wireless network using a protocol such asBluetooth (BT) or Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE).

The display 1706 may be an LED or LCD based display, and may be a touchsensitive user input device that supports gestures.

The processor unit 1708 controls the operation of the user device 1700.The processor unit 1708 can be any suitable processor, controller ordigital signal processor that can provide sufficient processing powerdepending on the configuration, purposes and requirements of the userdevice 1700 as is known by those skilled in the art. For example, theprocessor unit 1708 may be a high performance general processor. Inalternative embodiments, the processor unit 1708 can include more thanone processor with each processor being configured to perform differentdedicated tasks. In alternative embodiments, it may be possible to usespecialized hardware to provide some of the functions provided by theprocessor unit 1708. For example, the processor unit 1708 may include astandard processor, such as an Intel® processor, an ARM® processor or amicrocontroller.

The processor unit 1708 can also execute a user interface (UI) engine1714 that is used to generate various UIs, for example, for reporting ahemodynamic indicator to a user of the user device 1700.

The memory unit 1710 comprises software code for implementing anoperating system 1720, programs 1722, database 1724, lumped parametermodel 1726, subject specific input parameters 1728, optimization engine1730, and subject hemodynamic indicator engine 1732.

The memory unit 1710 can include RAM, ROM, one or more hard drives, oneor more flash drives or some other suitable data storage elements suchas disk drives, etc. The memory unit 1710 is used to store an operatingsystem 1720 and programs 1722 as is commonly known by those skilled inthe art.

The I/O unit 1712 can include at least one of a mouse, a keyboard, atouch screen, a thumbwheel, a track-pad, a track-ball, a card-reader,voice recognition software and the like again depending on theparticular implementation of the user device 1700. In some cases, someof these components can be integrated with one another.

The user interface engine 1714 is configured to generate interfaces forusers to configure cardiac measurements, connect to the cardiacmeasurement device, view indicators of hemodynamic function, etc. Thevarious interfaces generated by the user interface engine 1714 aredisplayed to the user on display 1706.

The power unit 1716 can be any suitable power source that provides powerto the user device 1700 such as a power adaptor or a rechargeablebattery pack depending on the implementation of the user device 1700 asis known by those skilled in the art.

The operating system 1720 may provide various basic operationalprocesses for the user device 1700. For example, the operating system1720 may be a mobile operating system such as Google® Android® operatingsystem, or Apple® iOS® operating system, or another operating system.

The programs 1722 include various user programs so that a user caninteract with the user device 1700 to perform various functions such as,but not limited to, connecting to the cardiac measurement devices andviewing indicators of hemodynamic function. In one embodiment, programs1722 include various user programs so that a user can interact with theuser device 1700 to, for example determine the relative contribution ofone or more one disease constituents to cardiovascular disease in thesubject, or predict the relative effect of different interventions onglobal and/or local indicators of hemodynamic function in the subject.

The database 1724 may be a database for storing cardiac measurement datafrom the cardiac measurement device, sub-model parameters, lumpedparameter models and determined hemodynamic indicators of one or moresubjects. The database 1724 may receive the data from the subjectspecific input parameters 1728 and the subject hemodynamic indicatorengine 1732, and may further receive queries for information from theoptimization engine 1730.

The database 1724 may be a database for storing subject specificinformation for the lumped parameter model 1726, including models orsub-model parameters generated by the optimization engine 1730.

The lumped parameter model 1726 may be the lumped parameter model asdescribed herein (see e.g. FIGS. 1A and 1B). The lumped parameter model1726 may be represented as an electrical circuit model. The lumpedparameter model 1726 may including one or more time varying functionsdescribing portions of the model. The lumped parameter model 1726 mayinclude one or more ordinary differential equations corresponding tosub-models or sub-portions.

The subject specific input parameters 1728 are received cardiacmeasurement data from the cardiac measurement devices (see e.g. 1610 inFIG. 16 ), optionally via the wireless transceiver and the network unit1704. The subject specific input parameters 1728 may be received andstored in database 1724. The subject specific input parameters 1728 maybe supplemented with user device data and user device metadata. Thesubject specific input parameters 1728 may be sent to a server (see e.g.1606 in FIG. 16 ). The subject specific input parameters 1728 maycommunicate with the cardiac measurement device wirelessly, using awired connection, or using a computer readable media such as a flashdrive or removable storage device.

The optimization engine 1730 may determine, based on cardiac measurementdata including a plurality of input parameters for a subject, one ormore solutions to the lumped parameter model 1726, including sub-modelparameters or coefficients that describe the cardiovascular function ofa subject. For example, the optimization engine 1730 may apply themethod of FIG. 8 to determine the lumped parameter model 1726 solutionfor a subject. The solution for the subject may be stored in database1724, and may be used subsequently to establish and evaluate a subject'scardiovascular function.

The subject hemodynamic indicator engine 1732 may determine one or morehemodynamic indicators based on the lumped parameter model 1726, subjectspecific input parameters 1728, and the solution for the subject to thelumped parameter model 1726 as determined by the optimization engine1730. This may be as described in FIGS. 11A(ii), 11B(ii), 12A(ii),12B(ii), 13A(ii), and 13B(ii). The hemodynamic indicator determined fora subject may be, for example, a single value for workload, or maydefine a function describing the LV pressure as function of LV volume.

In the preferred embodiment, the functions of the database 1724, lumpedparameter model 1726, subject specific input parameters 1728,optimization engine 1730, and subject hemodynamic indicator engine 1732may be performed by the user device (see e.g. 1616 in FIG. 16 ).

In an alternate embodiment, some or all of the functions of the database1724, lumped parameter model 1726, subject specific input parameters1728, optimization engine 1730, and subject hemodynamic indicator engine1732 may be performed by the cardiac monitoring device (see e.g. 1610 inFIG. 16 ).

In an alternate embodiment, some or all of the functions of the database1724, lumped parameter model 1726, subject specific input parameters1728, optimization engine 1730, and subject hemodynamic indicator engine1732 may be performed by the server (see e.g. 1606 in FIG. 16 ).

In one embodiment, the methods described herein may be performed byexecuting instructions on computer readable media using a computerprocessor. Accordingly, in one embodiment there is provided anon-transitory computer readable medium comprising computer-executableinstructions for determining an indicator of hemodynamic function for asubject. In one embodiment, the computer-executable instructions whenexecuted cause a processor to determine, based on a pre-determinedlumped parameter model and a plurality of input parameters for thesubject, at least one sub-model parameter and an indicator ofhemodynamic function for the subject based on at least one sub-modelparameter for the subject.

In one embodiment, the lumped parameter model comprises a plurality ofsub-models, the plurality of sub-models defined by a set of time-varyingfunctions comprising at least one sub-model parameter. In oneembodiment, the input parameters comprise at least one input parameterobtained using a non-invasive cardiovascular imaging modality and atleast one input parameter indicative of blood pressure.

The non-transitory computer readable medium may be stored a local orremote hard disk or hard drive (of any type, including electromechanicalmagnetic disks and solid-state disks), a memory chip, including, e.g.,random-access memory (RAM) and/or read-only memory (ROM), cache(s),buffer(s), flash memory, optical memory such as CD(s) and DVD(s), floppydisks, and any other form of storage medium in or on which informationmay be stored for any duration. Different implementations of thedisclosed method(s) may involve performing some or all the stepsdescribed herein in different orders or some or all of the stepssubstantially in parallel. Different implementations may involveperforming some or all of the steps on different processors or the sameprocessor, optionally wherein the processors are in networkedcommunication. The functions or method steps may be implemented in avariety of programming languages known in the art. For example, suchcode or computer readable or executable instructions may be stored oradapted for storage in one or more machine-readable media, such asdescribed above, which may be accessed by a processor-based system toexecute the stored code or computer readable or executable instructions.

TABLE 1 Exemplary cardiovascular parameters used in the lumped parametermodeling to simulate all patient-specific cases. DescriptionAbbreviation Value Valve parameters Effective orifice area EOA Measuredusing DE Energy loss coefficient E_(L)Co $\frac{({EOA})A}{A - {EOA}}$EOA and A are measured using DE Variable resistance R_(AV) & R_(AR)${{\frac{\rho}{2E_{L}{Co}❘_{AV}^{2}}{Q(t)}}\&}\frac{\rho}{2E_{L}{Co}❘_{AR}^{2}}{Q(t)}$R_(MV) & R_(MR)${{\frac{\rho}{2{EOA}❘_{MV}^{2}}{Q_{MV}(t)}}\&}\frac{\rho}{2{EOA}❘_{MR}^{2}}{Q(t)}$Inductance L_(AV) & L_(AR)${\frac{2{\pi\rho}}{\sqrt{2E_{L}{Co}❘_{AV}}}\&}\frac{2{\pi\rho}}{\sqrt{2E_{L}{Co}❘_{AR}}}$L_(MV) & L_(MR)${\frac{M_{MV}}{{EOA}_{M_{V}}}\&}\frac{M_{MV}}{{EOA}_{MR}}$ Inertance(mitral valve) M_(MV) Constant value: 0.53 gcm⁻² Systematic circulationparameters Aortic resistance R_(ao) Constant value: 0.05 mmHg·s·mL⁻¹Aortic compliance C_(ao) Initial value: 0.5 mL/mmHg Optimized based onbrachial pressures (Systolic and diastolic brachial pressures areoptimization constraints) Systemic vein R_(SV) 0.05 mmHg·s·mL⁻¹resistance Systemic arteries and C_(SAC) Initial value: 2 mL/mmHg veinscompliance Optimized based on brachial pressures (Systolic and diastolicbrachial pressures are optimization constraints) systemic arteriesR_(SA) Initial value: 0.8 mmHg·s·mL⁻¹ resistance Optimized based onbrachial pressures (including arteries, (Systolic and diastolic brachialpressures are arterioles and optimization constraints) capillaries)Upper body resistance R_(ub) Adjusted to have 15% of total flow rate inhealthy case¹⁵ Proximal descending R_(pda) Constant value: 0.05mmHg·s·mL⁻¹ aorta resistance Elastance Function* Maximum ElastanceE_(max)  2.1 (LV)  0.17 (LA) Minimum Elastance E_(min)  0.06 (LV, LA)Elastance ascending m₁  1.32 (LV, LA) gradient Elastance descending m₂27.4 (LV) gradient 13.1 (LA) Elastance ascending τ₁  0.269 T (LV) timetranslation  0.110 T (LA) Elastance descending τ₂  0.452 T (LV) timetranslation  0.18 T (LA) Elastance Normalization N$\frac{E_{MAX} - E_{MIN}}{2}$ Pulmonary circulation parameters PulmonaryVein L_(PV) Constant value: 0.0005 mmHg·s²·mL⁻¹ lnertance Pulmonary VeinR_(PV) Constant value: 0.002 mmHg·s·mL⁻¹ Resistance Pulmonary Vein andR_(PVC) Constant value: 0.001 mmHg·s·mL⁻¹ capillary Resistance PulmonaryVein and C_(PVC) Constant value: 40 mL/mmHg Capillary CompliancePulmonary Capillary L_(PC) Constant value: 0.0003 mmHg·s²·mL⁻¹ lnertancePulmonary Capillary R_(PC) Constant value: 0.21 mmHg·s·mL⁻¹ ResistancePulmonary Arterial R_(PA) Constant value: 0.01 mmHg·s·mL⁻¹ ResistancePulmonary Arterial C_(PA) Constant value: 4 mL/mmHg Compliance Mean FlowRate of Q_(MPV) Forward LVOT-SV is the only input flow conditionPulmonary Valve (measured using DE). Q_(MPV) is a flow parameter thatwas optimized so that the lump-parameter model could reproduce thedesirable DE-measured Forward LVOT-SV. Input flow condition Forward leftventricular Forward Measured using DE outflow tract stroke LVOT-SVvolume Output condition Central venous P_(CV0) Constant value: 4 mmHgpressure Other Constant blood density ρ Constant value: 1050 kg/m³ Heartrate HR Measured using DE Duration of cardiac T Measured using DE cycleSystolic End Ejection T_(EJ) Measured using DE time End diastolic volumeEDV Measured using DE End systolic volume ESV Measured using DE Preintervention 90-day post intervention Mean ± SD Mean ± SD (n = 49) (n =49) Ventricular indices - DE findings Ejection fraction, % 53.5 ± 12.7   61 ± 14.6 Heart rate, bpm 70.7 ± 9.5    68 ± 11.8 Stroke volume, mL48.3 ± 11.7  44.5 ± 15.5 Valvular indices - DE findings Aortic valveeffective orifice area 0.58 ± 0.16  1.75 ± 0.4 (cm²) Mean aortic valvegradient, mmHg 51.52 ± 13.6  11.1 ± 6.1 Maximum aortic valve gradient,84.5 ± 21.32  20.4 ± 10.28 mmHg Aortic valve disease type Tricuspid: 46;Bicuspid: 3 N/A Transcatheter valve prosthetic size, N/A 26.87 ± 1.6 mmTranscatheter valve prosthetic type N/A CoreValve, SAPIEN & SAPIENXTAortic valve Regurgitation ≥ grade 2 48% 5% Mitral valve Regurgitation ≥grade 2 19% 20% Vascular indices - Sphygmomanometer Brachial systolicblood pressure,  139 ± 22.5   135 ± 16.8 mmHg Brachial diastolic bloodpressure,   79 ± 11.7   68 ± 10.3 mmHg Patient description Mean age,years; Gender 64.5 ± 5.5; (Female: 36%) N/A Mean weight, kg; Meanheight, cm 73.4 ± 12.8; 165.7 ± 9.6 N/A Body surface area, m² 1.73 ±0.14 N/A Body mass index, kg/m² 31.9 ± 21.5 N/A

Example 1: Comparison of C3VI-CMF with Cardiac Catheterization Data

Study Population

Forty-nine patients with C3VI who underwent TAVR or mitral valvuloplasty(see Table 2 for patients characteristics) between 2011 and 2018 at St.Joseph's Healthcare and Hamilton Health Sciences (Hamilton, ON, Canada)and Hospital Universitario Marques de Valdecilla (IDIVAL, Santander,Spain) were retrospectively considered². The protocol was reviewed andapproved by the Ethics Committee of the institutions. Dopplerechocardiography data were acquired at 2 time points: pre-procedure and90-day post procedure. Echocardiograms were analyzed by seniorcardiologists². The model takes the following echocardiographyparameters in patients as the inputs: forward left ventricular outflowtract stroke volume (Forward LVOT-SV), cardiac cycle time (T), ejectiontime (T_(EJ)), EOA_(AV), EOA_(MV), A_(AO), A_(LVOT), EOA_(AR), EOA_(MR).In addition. The model uses the brachial systolic and diastolicpressures measured by sphygmomanometer. Cardiac catheterizations wereperformed pre intervention. The pressure gradients computed using thealgorithm were compared and validated against cardiac catheterizationmeasurements in fort-nine patients with C3VI.

Statistical Analysis

All results were expressed as mean±standard deviations (SD). Statisticalanalyses were performed using SigmaStat software (Version 3.1, SystatSoftware, SanJose, CA, USA).

Results

Validation: C3VI-CMF Results vs. In Vivo Measurements

The non-invasive image-based computational mechanics tool (C3VI-CMF),described above, was validated against cardiac catheterization in 49human subjects as follows:

Pressure waveforms: The beat-to-beat pressure calculations of C3VI-CMFwere compared with cardiac catheter pressure measurements in all 49subjects.

FIGS. 9A(i), 9A(ii), 9B(i), 9B(ii), 9C(i), and 9C(ii), shown comparisonsof C3VI-CMF calculations with catheter data in 3 patients (Patients#1—FIGS. 9A(i) and 9A(ii), #2—FIGS. 9B(i) and 9B(ii) and #3—FIGS. 9C(i)and 9C(ii)). Catheter data and pressure calculated by C3VI-CMF inpatients with C3VI. The beat-to-beat C3VI-CMF pressure calculationcompared favorably with cardiac catheter pressure measurement in allsubjects. FIGS. 9A(i), 9B(i), and 9C(i) represent catheter data fromsubjects #1, #2 and #3. FIGS. 9A(ii), 9B(ii) and 9C(ii) representcatheter data and modeling results for subjects #1, #2, and #3Results ofC3VI-CMF show good qualitative agreements with catheter measurements interms of both shape of the waveform, and specific wave features such asthe amplitude and the timing of the systolic peak in the left ventricleand aorta. In all subjects (n=49), the calculations done by C3VI-CMF hadan average RMS error of 11.8 mmHg in the LV pressure, and an average RMSerror of 9.9 mmHg in the aorta pressure.

FIGS. 10A and 10B show peak pressure correlations. FIG. 10A shows thepeak pressure correlation diagram for the left ventricle. FIG. 10B showsthe peak pressure correlation diagram for the aorta. Peak pressurescalculated by C3VI-CMF are correlated well with catheter measurements inall 49 patients with C3VI as indicated by high coefficients ofdetermination.

Peak pressure: The Peak pressures calculated by C3VI-CMF (LV: 164.5±30.7mmHg, aorta: 133.88±14.25 mmHg) were in close agreement with thecatheter measurements (LV: 165.9±30.9 mmHg, aorta: 133.75±14.67 mmHg) inall subjects (n=49). Peak pressures resulted from C3VI-CMF correlatedwell with the catheter measurements as indicated by high coefficients ofdetermination in FIGS. 10A and 10B (LV: R²=0.982; aorta: R²=0.933).Maximum relative errors of 4.49% and 4.33% were respectively observed inthe aorta and LV pressure in all C3VI subjects, consistent with highcorrelations.

FIGS. 11 to 13 show samples of C3VI-CMF calculations for the same C3VIpatients (Patients #1, #2 and #3) whose catheter and C3VI-CMF data forvalidation were shown (FIGS. 9A(i), 9A(ii), 9B(i), 9B(ii), 9C(i), and9C(ii)) and discussed above.

Patient #1 (FIGS. 11A(i), 11A(ii), 11A(iii), 11A(iv), 11B(i), 11B(ii),11B(iii) and 11B(iv)) underwent TAVR (Edwards biological prosthesis) andhad the following conditions: Pre-TAVR (FIGS. 11A(i), 11A(ii), 11A(iii),11A(iv)): severe aortic stenosis (EOA=0.5 cm²), mild aorticregurgitation (AR), moderate to severe mitral regurgitation (MR),moderate to severe concentric hypertrophy, ejection fraction: 50%,brachial pressures: 40 and 115 mmHg, forward LV stroke volume: 54 mL;Post-TAVR (116(i), 11B(ii), 11B(iii) and 11B(iv)): aortic valve (EOA=1.6cm²), mild to moderate paravalvular leakage, moderate to severe MR,hypertension, moderate to severe concentric hypertrophy, ejectionfraction: 60%, brachial pressures: 45 and 140 mmHg, forward LV strokevolume: 53 mL.

Patient #2 (FIGS. 12A(i), 12A(ii), 12A(iii), 12A(iv), 12B(i), 12B(ii),12B(iii) and 12B(iv)) underwent TAVR (Edwards biological prosthesis) andhad the following conditions: Pre-TAVR (FIGS. 12A(i), 12A(ii), 12A(iii),12A(iv)): severe aortic stenosis (EOA=0.55 cm²), mild aorticregurgitation (AR), mild mitral regurgitation (MR), severe concentrichypertrophy, ejection fraction: 60-65%, brachial pressures: 50 and 135mmHg, forward LV stroke volume: 52 mL; Post-TA VR (12B(i), 12B(ii),12B(iii) and 12B(iv)): aortic valve (EOA=1.45 cm²), trace MR,hypertension, severe concentric hypertrophy, ejection fraction: 60%,brachial pressures: 90 and 150 mmHg, forward LV stroke volume: 46 mL.

Patient #3 (FIGS. 13A(i), 13A(ii), 13(iii), 13A(iv), 13B(i), 13B(ii),13B(iii) and 13B(iv)) underwent mitral dilatation (valvuloplasty) andhad the following conditions: Pre-valvuloplasty (FIGS. 13A(i), 13A(ii),13A(iii), 13A(iv)): mitral valve stenosis (EOA=1 cm²), No MR, moderateAS (EOA=1.5 cm²), mild AR (REOA=0.05 cm²), ejection fraction: 55-60%,forward LV stroke volume: 46 mL, and brachial pressures: 70 and 105mmHg; Post-valvuloplasty (FIGS. 13B(i), 13B(ii), 13B(iii), 13B(iv)):mitral valve stenosis (EOA=1.5 cm²), mild to moderate MR (REOA=0.1 cm²),moderate AS (EOA=1.5 cm²), mild AR (REOA=0.05 cm²), ejection fraction:55-60%, forward LV stroke volume: 48 mL, and brachial pressures: 62 and100 mmHg.

Metrics of Cardiac Function.

In the presence of C3VI, the heart is overloaded since the healthyinstantaneous LV pressure and/or flow are altered. Currently, theinventor is not aware of any other methods that can invasively ornon-invasively quantify the heart workload (global function) and providecontribution breakdown of each component of the cardiovascular system.This is especially crucial in C3VI because quantifications of the LVworkload and its breakdown are vital to guide prioritizinginterventions.

FIGS. 11 and 12 show the pre and post intervention LV workload in C3VIPatients #1 & #2 who received TAVR. Pre intervention, untreated aorticstenosis increased the burden on the LV due to the augmented flowresistance which causes a LV pressure overload in the pre-interventionstatus. Post intervention, TAVR was accompanied by reduction in LVworkload in both patients reducing the LV workload (by 27% and 33.7% inPatient #1 and #2, respectively). FIG. 13 shows LV workload in Patient#3 in pre and post valvuloplasty status. Instead of improving the heartcondition by reducing the LV workload, valvuloplasty caused an increasein the LV workload due to worsening the mitral regurgitation. FIGS. 11to 13 demonstrate that in all three patients with various C3VI diseasecombinations, C3VI-CMF was able to quantify the heart workload (globalhemodynamics).

FIGS. 14A and 14B, show examples of calculations for analyzing thebreakdown of the contributions of the disease constituents on the LVworkload in Patient #1. This may include determining an indicator ofhemodynamic function. Referring to FIG. 14B, a P-V diagram 1450 is shownof the actual diseased condition and prediction of several valveinterventions. Referring to FIG. 14A, a predicted percent decrease inthe left ventricle workload following valve interventions is shown. Inorder to plan valve interventions, each of the valvular diseaseconstituents were replaced by the normal condition one-at-a-time and theLV workload was calculated and shown in FIG. 14A. Both mitral valveregurgitation (49.5% increase) and aortic valve stenosis (24% increase)had substantial contributions to increasing the workload. According tothis analysis, correcting of mitral valve regurgitation should have thehighest priority in this patient.

In the pre-intervention state, this patient had severe calcific aorticstenosis, mild aortic regurgitation, moderate to severe mitralregurgitation and concentric hypertrophy. In order to plan valveinterventions, each of the valvular disease constituents were replacedby the normal condition one-at-a-time and the LV workload was calculatedand shown in FIG. 14A. As shown in FIG. 14B, both mitral valveregurgitation (49.5% increase) and aortic valve stenosis (24% increase)had substantial contributions to increasing the workload. However,because mitral valve regurgitation had the greatest contribution,correcting it should have had the highest priority in the sequence ofinterventions. Considering the conditions of this patient, the decisionof whether to also perform mitral intervention at the time of aorticvalve intervention might have been carefully evaluated and considered.However, in reality, this patient only underwent transcatheter aorticvalve replacement, TAVR (FIG. 11 ). The presented simulation results(FIGS. 14A and 14B) predict that fixing aortic valve stenosis alone canreduce the workload by 24% which agrees with the actual measurement datapost-intervention (FIG. 11 ) in this patient (workload was reduced by18% after TAVR).

Discussion

Due to the wide inter-subject variability in cardiovascular anatomy andpathophysiology, it is desirable to design individualized treatmentplans based on the diagnosis data and the predictions made aboutindividuals' risk of the intervention. The C3VI-CMF framework describedherein provides a patient-specific non-invasive diagnostic, monitoring,and predictive tool that can investigate and quantify effects of C3VIconstituents on the heart function, and the circulatory system. Thebasis of C3VI-CMF may be calculations of the local hemodynamics(detailed information of the fluid dynamics of the circulatory system,e.g., flow and pressure in different regions) and global hemodynamics(the heart workload). This tool may provide the breakdown of the effectsof disease constituents on the global function of the heart as well soit can help predicting the effects of interventions and planning for thesequence of interventions. C3VI-CMF may be capable of tracking cardiacand vascular state based on accurate time-varying models that reproducephysiological responses. While this information is important foreffectively using advanced therapies to improve clinical outcomes andguiding interventions in C3VI patients, it is currently accessible in aclinic setting.

The method was evaluated under pathophysiologic conditions and itsperformance was assessed in forty-nine C3VI patients with a substantialinter- and intra-patient variability with a wide range of disease. Theresults demonstrate not only repeatability but also validity even indifferent physiologic conditions (see FIGS. 9 and 10 ; Table 2). Thisdemonstrates the ability of C3VI-CMF to track changes in both cardiac,and vascular states. C3VI-CMF purposefully uses reliable non-invasiveinput parameters to continuously calculate patient-specific hemodynamicsquantities to be used for diagnosis, monitoring, and prediction ofcardiac function and circulatory state with direct clinical relevance.

While the present application has been described with reference toexamples, it is to be understood that the scope of the claims should notbe limited by the embodiments set forth in the examples, but should begiven the broadest interpretation consistent with the description as awhole.

All publications, patents and patent applications are hereinincorporated by reference in their entirety to the same extent as ifeach individual publication, patent or patent application wasspecifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by referencein its entirety. Where a term in the present application is found to bedefined differently in a document incorporated herein by reference, thedefinition provided herein is to serve as the definition for the term.

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I claim:
 1. A non-invasive method for determining an indicator ofhemodynamic function for a subject, the method comprising: providing alumped parameter model, the lumped parameter model comprising aplurality of sub-models, the plurality of sub-models defined by a set oftime-varying functions comprising at least one sub-model parameter,wherein one of the sub-models is a left ventricle sub-model and the leftventricle sub-model is determined based on a time varying normalizedelastance function; one of the sub-models is a left atrium sub-model andthe left atrium sub-model is defined by the time varying normalizedelastance function; one of the sub-models is an aortic valve sub-modeland the aortic valve sub-model is defined by a first time-varying netpressure gradient function across the aortic valve during left ventricleejection; or one of the sub-models is a mitral valve sub-model and themitral valve sub-model is defined by a second time-varying net pressuregradient function across the mitral valve during left atrium ejection;receiving a plurality of input parameters for the subject, the inputparameters comprising at least one input parameter obtained using anon-invasive cardiovascular imaging modality and at least one inputparameter indicative of blood pressure; determining the at least onesub-model parameter in the plurality of sub-models for the subject basedon the lumped parameter model and the plurality of input parameters; anddetermining the indicator of hemodynamic function for the subject basedon at least one sub-model parameter for the subject.
 2. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the non-invasive cardiovascular imaging modality isDoppler echocardiography.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the at leastone input parameter obtained using the non-invasive cardiovascularimaging modality comprises at least one selected from a forward leftventricular outflow tract stroke volume (LVOT-SV), a heart rate, anejection time, an ascending aorta area, a left ventricular outflow tractarea, an aortic valve effective orifice area, a mitral valve effectiveorifice area, an indicator of aortic valve regurgitation severity and anindicator of mitral valve regurgitation severity and the at least oneinput parameter indicative of blood pressure comprises a diastolic bloodpressure and a systolic blood pressure.
 4. The method of claim 1,wherein the time varying normalized elastance function is modelled usinga double Hill function.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein one of thesub-models is a pulmonary circulation sub-model and the pulmonarycirculation sub-model is defined by a rectified sine curve waveform witha duration (t_(ee)) and amplitude based on a mean flow rate of thepulmonary valve (Q_(MPV)) and the method further comprises optimizingthe at least one sub-model parameter for the mean flow rate of thepulmonary valve (Q_(MPV)) based on minimizing the error between asub-model parameter value of LVOT-SV determined for the subject usingthe lumped parameter model and a value of LVOT-SV for the subjectdetermined using the non-invasive cardiovascular imaging modality. 6.The method of claim 1, wherein one of the sub-models is a systemicsub-model, and the systemic sub-model is defined by sub-model parametersfor a systemic artery resistance (R_(SA)), an aorta compliance (C_(ao))and a systemic compliance (C_(SAC)) and the method further comprisesoptimizing sub-model parameter values for the systemic artery resistance(R_(SA)), the aorta compliance (C_(ao)) and the systemic compliance(C_(SAC)) based on minimizing the error between values of systolic anddiastolic blood pressure determined for the subject using the lumpedparameter model and the values of systolic and diastolic blood pressurefor the subject determined using a sphygmomanometer.
 7. The method ofclaim 1, wherein: the indicator of hemodynamic function comprises anindicator of global hemodynamic function selected from the group of aleft ventricle workload, a left-ventricular end-diastolic pressure andan instantaneous left-ventricular pressure; and the indicator of globalhemodynamic function is determined at least based on the determinedsub-model parameter of at least one sub-model in the plurality ofsub-models.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein: the indicator ofhemodynamic function comprises an indicator of local hemodynamicfunction selected from the group of a left ventricle pressure, an aortapressure, an atrium pressure, an aortic valve pressure, a mitral valvepressure, a mitral flow rate, a left ventricle flow, an aorta flow, aleft ventricle volume, a left atrial volume, and flow, pressure andvolume through the circulatory system; and the indicator of localhemodynamic function is determined based on the determined sub-modelparameter of at least one sub-model in the plurality of sub-models. 9.The method of claim 1, further comprising diagnosing, monitoring orprognosing cardiovascular disease in the subject based on the indicatorof hemodynamic function.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein thecardiovascular disease comprises complex valvular-vascular-ventricularinteractions (C3VI), optionally the C3VI including: valvular diseasesuch as aortic valve stenosis, mitral valve stenosis, aortic valveregurgitation or mitral valve insufficiency; ventricular disease such asleft ventricle (LV) dysfunction or heart failure; vascular disease suchas hypertension; paravalvular leaks; LV outflow tract obstruction; orchanges due to surgical procedures for C3VI such as valve replacement orleft ventricular reconstructive surgery.
 11. The method of claim 10,further comprising determining the relative contribution of one or moreC3VI disease constituents to the cardiovascular disease in the subject,optionally by comparing LV workload.
 12. The method of claim 11, whereindetermining the relative contribution of the one or more C3VI diseaseconstituents to the cardiovascular disease in the subject comprisescomparing the LV workload for the subject with LV workload for thesubject determined using the lumped parameter model wherein the at leastone sub-model parameter is modified to represent a modified C3VI diseaseconstituent, optionally a healthy or normal C3VI disease constituent.13. The method of claim 12, wherein the one or more C3VI diseaseconstituents are aortic valve stenosis, aortic regurgitation, mitralstenosis, mitral regurgitation, left ventricle hypertrophy anddysfunction, heart failure, vascular disease, or paravalvular leakageafter intervention, optionally the vascular disease being hypertension.14. The method of claim 9, further comprising selecting a treatment forthe subject based on the indicator of hemodynamic function, optionallybased on a plurality of indicators of hemodynamic function that includesthe indicator of hemodynamic function; or based on the relativecontribution of the one or more complex valvular-vascular-ventricularinteractions (C3VI) disease constituents to the cardiovascular diseasein the subject.
 15. The method of claim 9, wherein diagnosing,monitoring or prognosing the cardiovascular disease in the subjectcomprises determining a prediction of an intervention effect for thesubject and the indicator of hemodynamic function is the prediction ofthe intervention effect for the subject, the method comprisingdetermining the indicator of hemodynamic function based on one or moreof: an indicator of global hemodynamic function determined for thesubject, optionally heart workload; a relative contribution of one ormore one disease constituents to the indicator of global hemodynamicfunction for the subject; and an indicator of local hemodynamic functiondetermined for the subject, wherein the indicator of local hemodynamicfunction provides information on the fluid dynamics of the circulatorysystem for the subject.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein receiving theplurality of input parameters for the subject comprises performing thenon-invasive cardiovascular imaging modality, optionally Dopplerechocardiography; and sphygmomanometry, on the subject.
 17. A system fordetermining an indicator of hemodynamic function for a subject, thesystem comprising: a memory, the memory comprising: a lumped parametermodel, the lumped parameter model comprising a plurality of sub-modelscomprising at least one sub-model parameter, the plurality of sub-modelsdefined by a set of time-varying functions comprising the at least onesub-model parameter, wherein one of the sub-models is a left ventriclesub-model and the left ventricle sub-model is determined based on a timevarying normalized elastance function; one of the sub-models is a leftatrium sub-model and the left atrium sub-model is defined by the timevarying normalized elastance function; one of the sub-models is anaortic valve sub-model and the aortic valve sub-model is defined by afirst time-varying net pressure gradient function across the aorticvalve during left ventricle ejection; or one of the sub-models is amitral valve sub-model and the mitral valve sub-model is defined by asecond time-varying net pressure gradient function across the mitralvalve during left atrium ejection; a processor in communication with thememory, the processor configured to: receive a plurality of inputparameters for the subject, the input parameters comprising at least oneinput parameter obtained using a non-invasive imaging modality and atleast one input parameter indicative of blood pressure; determine the atleast one sub-model parameter in the plurality of sub-models for thesubject based on the lumped parameter model and the plurality of inputparameters; and determine the indicator of hemodynamic function for thesubject based on at least one sub-model parameter for the subject.
 18. Anon-transitory computer readable medium comprising computer-executableinstructions for determining an indicator of hemodynamic function for asubject, wherein the computer-executable instructions when executedcause a processor to determine the indicator of hemodynamic functionbased on a lumped parameter model and a plurality of input parametersfor the subject, the lumped parameter model comprising a plurality ofsub-models, the plurality of sub-models defined by a set of time-varyingfunctions comprising at least one sub-model parameter, and the pluralityof input parameters for the subject comprising at least one inputparameter obtained using a non-invasive cardiovascular imaging modalityand at least one input parameter indicative of blood pressure, whereinone of the sub-models is a left ventricle sub-model and the leftventricle sub-model is determined based on a time varying normalizedelastance function; one of the sub-models is a left atrium sub-model andthe left atrium sub-model is defined by the time varying normalizedelastance function; one of the sub-models is an aortic valve sub-modeland the aortic valve sub-model is defined by a first time-varying netpressure gradient function across the aortic valve during left ventricleelection; or one of the sub-models is a mitral valve sub-model and themitral valve sub-model is defined by a second time-varying net pressuregradient function across the mitral valve during left atrium ejection.